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RECOMMENDATIONS. 



Wrights Philosophical Grammar of the English Language. — To the 
numerous and important advantages of this work, it possesses the rare qual- 
ity of being self-instructive, as well as communicable : by it, the branch 
of literature, usually denominated " English Grammar," heretofore in many 
respects rendered unintelligible by learned obscurity, (the ever accompany- 
ing result of immature conception,) is ingeniously simplified, and brought 
within the grasp of the most ordinary capacity. Those who desire a solid 
and permanent acquaintance with the philological subtleties of the English 
dialect, should possess this work. — The Peopled Press, Cork, Mar. 10, 1834. 



We have seen Mr. Wright's Grammar of the English Language ; and, in 
justice to the author, we must say, that it deserves the patronage of the pub- 
lick, and cannot fail to obtain it. Seldom, if ever, have we witnessed a more 
acute display of criticism than this book affords. Useful instruction, incul- 
cated by moral precepts and appropriate examples, must be, in no small de- 
gree, interesting to youth. The work before us embraces both ; and we feel 
no hesitation in heartily recommending it to all persons desirous of impor- 
tant information on the subject of English Grammar. — Constitution, or 
Morning Post, May, 1824. 



In perusing this book, we- are happy to find, that the author's specious 
pretensions are fully realized, and we congratulate the publick, on being able 
to recommend to their attention, a work so highly useful and instructive. We 
believe, few publications, perhaps none, on the subject of English Gram- 
mar, contain more acute observations and logical precision. We look for 
its general adoption in our schools. — Southern Reporter, May, 1824. 



While examining the title-page, we confess, that nothing short of its splendid 
professions, could induce us to give the work a reading ; believing, as we 
then did, that an attempt of this nature, at the present advanced state of the 
English language, must be altogether fruitless. However, we have perused 



2 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

it, and have much satisfaction in announcing our error. We not only grrc 
our decided approbation of its superior merits, but feel also much pleasure 
in recommending it to those anxious for sterling knowledge on the peculiari- 
ties of our language. — Advertiser, May, 1834. 



Skibbereen, Co. Cork, 12th May, 1825. 

Dear Sir — I have great pleasure in complying with your request, so fay 
as it involves a desire to express my opinion on the merits of your produc- 
tion on the grammatical principles of our language. 

I regret that my present position amongst the literary characters of the 
day, is not so conspicuous as I could desire, in order to add that importance 
to my decision which would do something like justice to your deserts in this 
instance. 

I have read your book with much attention, and, I must add, with profit 
and delight. I do it but justice, when I say, that in my humble opinion, it 
must, if respectably published, supersede every thing of its kind. I shall feel 
happy, when it is published, to give it every support in my power ; and, as a 
foretaste of that intention, entreat you to enter my name for fifty copies. 
I am, dear Sir, your obedient servant, 

Mr. J. W. Wright. t MICHAEL COLLINS, R. C. B., M. C. 



Skibbereen School, Feb. 10, 1826. 

Dear Sir — I am free to acknowledge, that on receipt of your English 
Grammar, I took it up under feelings ill calculated to enhance its value in my 
esteem. These feelings, I am bound to say, originated in the fixed convic. 
tion, that a subject so hackneyed by numerous writers, since the production 
of Mr. Murray's amended and enlarged edition, (without evincing, in anyone 
instance, that importance which would redeem the pretensions advanced) 
had already attained its standard point of perfection ; and that, consequently, 
further attempts, however well designed, would prove uninteresting, if not 
altogether nugatory. 

With pleasure, I retract what I now clearly perceive is an untenable po- 
sition ; and, I am of opinion, that your truly interesting work requires nought 
but circulation to be duly appreciated. 

I am, dear Sir, your obedient servant, 

Mr. J. W. Wright. THOMAS COOK, A. B. } T. C. D. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 3 

Throughout the eminently useful pages of this work, no jejune observa- 
tions, or flippant sarcasms, on justly prostrated theories, present themselves ; 
ruo tiny or hypercritical captiousness, on popular productions ; (with respect 
to Inaccuracies of style) no labored or abstruse speculations, on obsolete or 
antique non-essentials; all seems energetick and ingenuous comment and 
criticism — the result of erudite and subtile research into the peculiarities of 
the language. In a word, the authors efforts fully sustain the professions 
set forth in the title of this admirable work. — Examiner, March, 1827. 



We have seen this (Wright's) Grammar of the English Language ; and, 
with extreme pleasure, take leave to offer our humble opinion of its merits. 
Its intriusick worth, as a class-book, is, we are much gratified to observe, 
greatly enhanced by the introduction of a system of illustration, embodying 
moral and religious instruction- — a desideratum of incalculable importance, 
in all productions intended for the initiation of youth. Its title is not, in our 
esteem, more conspicuous for its professions, than its contents fully author- 
ize. — Mercantile Chronicle, May, 1827. 



To withhold our notice or approbation of this work, (which has been sub- 
mitted for our inspection) would, we confess, be little short of injustice to 
its merits, which are of no common order. In offering our serious recom- 
mendation of its attentive perusal, to persons desirous of acquiring matured 
and intelligible views of the peculiarities and constructions of hitherto cur- 
rent and unsuspected modes of phraseology, we cannot avoid expressing our 
regret at discovering, that too much apathy towards an intimate acquaint- 
ance with the principles of grammar rules, prevails amongst persons other- 
wise well informed. This indifference, we opine, arises from an indulgence 
of some minds in the supposition, that a minute and critical knowledge of 
the modes of expressing thoughts, is unnecessary, provided that the substan- 
tial and more important matter of sentiment be intelligibly communicated. 
However, we take leave to repeat the opinion, that " so long as the improve- 
ment of the means of exchanging ideas shall be deemed an object worthy of 
the attention of the legislator, the philosopher, and the philanthropist; and, 
so long as improvements of this nature, though ever so trivial, tend to facilitate 
the transitions by which the mind passes from one subject to another, so 
Jong must an acquaintance with their modes of formation be more or less 
interesting to every individuaMn society. "—Herald, Aug. 3, 1836. 



4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

We have perused Mr. Wright's work on English Grammar, with much at- 
tention ; and we confess ourselves amply satisfied of its superiority, in every 
respect, to Lindley Murray y s, which is now considered the standard gram- 
mar of our language. The criticisms, though neither deficient m salt ner 
ucid } are given, throughout its pages, fn a spirit entirely divested of acrimony. 
In a word, we are afforded much pleasure, to be enabled to bestow our most 
unqualified approbation ©n this excellent work. — Standard, Sept. 1836. 



Kensington T Oct. 24, 1S3& 
Sir— I am happy to perceive that your book sustains its important title; 
Such a work was much wanted. Your' ingenious strictures have reduced 
the subject of English Grammar to a complete science. Need I add, that 1 
shall feel much gratified in adopting it in my sehool'. 

Your very obedient servant, 
Mr. Wright. P. W. BARTON. 



We, the undersigned, Teachers of Classical and English Literature, have 
examined Mr. Wright's Grammar of the English Language.. We feel our- 
selves compelled to acknowledge,, that the extensive improvements, the per- 
spicuous arrangements, and truly judicious exiticims exhibited by the authoF, 
throughout his subject, claim our warmest support.. Conceiving that the tenor 
of this testimonial is best evinced by the expression of our determination to 
adopt this work as a general class-book in our respective establishments, we 
hereby pledge ourselves to this effects 

Signed and done in Cork,. September 10th, 1836. 

ROBERT RADCLIFFE, L.L.D.T.C.D. JOHN MORONEY, Prin. Mech. Ins; 

THOS WIGMORE, A. B. T. C. D., Clk. ROBERT MOORE, M. & E. T. 

HENRY J. O'BRIEN, A. B. T. C. D. JOHN DAVIS, M. & E. T. 

MICHAEL HALY, Mat. & Eng. T. STEPHEN CUSSEN, M. & E. T. 

DANIEL CASEY, M. & E. T. DAN'L O'CONNOR, M. & E. T. 

JAMES H. O'BRIEN, Class. T. DAVID DOUGLAS, M. & E. T. 

CALLAGHAN J.HASTINGS,M.&E.T. FRED'K BRANDON, M. & E. T. 

JOSEPH O'REGAN, Class. T. WILLIAM MARTIN, M. & E. T. 

JOHN STOPFQRD, M. & E. T. JOHN WISEMAN, M. & E. T. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 5 

We fully concur in the particulars advanced in the foregoing opinion, and 
feel great pleasure in imitating a determination so deservedly adopted. 
• October, 1836. 

JOHN BROWNE, L. L. D., T. C., D , Bandon End. School. 

JOHN TURPIN, A. M., T. C, D., Middleton do. 

THOMAS ELMS, A. B., T. C, D.. Bandon. 

RICHARD HAYES, A. B.,T C, D., Bandon. 

-JAMES BAKER, M. & E. T. , Skibbereen. 

TERENCE CROLY, M. & E. T., Bantry. 

JAMES LONG, Class. Teach., Bandon. 

P. HANRAHAN, Class. Teach., Carrigalme. 

RICHARD ATKINS, M. & E. T., Skibbereen. 

MICHAEL M'CARTHY, M. & E. T., Carrigalme. 

JAMES RUSSEL, M. & E. T., Cove. 

WM. BARTON, M. & E. T., Kinsale. 

BENJAMIN ATKINS, M. & E T., Bandon. 

DANIEL M'CARTIE, M. & E. T., Skibbereen. 

FRANCIS SULLIVAN, Class. T., Kinsale. 

JOHN O'SULLIVAN, Class. T. 3 Coachford. 



{Extract from the letter of Doctor Kyle, Bishop of Cork and Cloyne, late 
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, to Doctor M'Caul, Sept. 15, 1836.] 

The bearer, Mr Wright, is the author of an English Grammar. The ob- 
ject at which he aims is certainly still open to competitors; and improve- 
ments of this nature can never be unimportant. His theory of verbs, which 
I long since anticipated, is conspicuous for its perspicuity. From the work 
generally, he has read to me a considerable portion of original and interest- 
ing matter, in which I fully concur. SAMUEL, Cork and Cloyne. 



7, Trinity College, Dublin, Sept. 18, 183G. 
Dear Sir— I have been favored with a view of your English Grammar. 
From the great ingenuity and originality displayed throughout its pages, little 
room is left to doubt its complete success. If respectably published, it must 
command an extensive circulation. 

I am, dear Sir, yours truly, 

JOHN M'CAUL, L. L. D., T. C. D., 
Mr. J. W. Wright. Author of Greek Lexicon. 



6 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Cork, Oifo5er4, 1836. 
Dear Sir — Agreeably to your request, I have perused your treatise on 
English Grammar ; and. in brief commendation of its merits, hesitate not to 
say, that I conceive it to be a work of the highest order; an indelible credit 
to the head and heart which produced it ; and, of incalculable importance to 
all who desire an intimate acquaintance with the peculiarities and philosophy 
of our language. I shall- adopt it in my school 1 . 

I am, dear Sir, your obedient servant, 
Mr. J. W. Wright. R RADCL1FFE, L. L. D. r T. C, D. 



131 Grove-street j, Camden Town, London, Oct* 20, 1836. 
Sir — So far as 1 have had an opportunity of consulting your grammatical 
work, I feel satisfied, that it contains much important original thought; and. 
that it is infinitely superior to either Murray's or Hiley's. 

I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant, 

W. C. TAYLOR, L. L. D., T. C, D. 
Mr. J. W. Wright. Ed. Athtn&um. 



Trinity College, December 12, 1836. 

Sir — Having perused your Grammar with much care, I have no hesitation 
in saying, that I consider it a work of great merit, admirably adapted to the 
capacity of the youthful student, and that it may be read with much profit by 
adults. 1 remain, Sir, yours, &c. &c. 

Mr. J. W. Wright. MICHAEL ROBERTS, F. T. C, IX 



Carrigaline Glebe, Dec. 15/A, 1836. 
Bear Sir — Having repeatedly heard of tbe general approbation bestowed! 
on your Grammar of the English Language, and having determined to judge 
for myself, I am, after a careful perusal of its contents, induced to testify my 
most unqualified concurrence in those views so justly and liberally enter- 
tained of its merits. And, I sincerely trust, that a work so truly valuably 
will experience the encouragement which it so eminently deserves. 
I am, dear Sir, your obedient servant, 

JOHN JOHNSON, Clk., A. B., T. C, D. 

- Mr. J. W. Wright. 



Trinity College, Dublin, Dec. 27, 1836. 
On receipt of your work on English Grammar, which you have been 
pleased to submit for my examination and opinion, I feel induced to say, that 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 7 

did not the professions of its title lead me to hope that some light would be 
thrown on several of the frivolously conducted theories advanced by our 
grammarians in general, amongst whom I must particularize Mr. Murray, I 
should have taken leave, however unceremonious the act may appear, to de 
cline the invitation and honor intended. Having, however, read it with mark- 
ed attention, I feel gratified to acknowledge, that my most sanguine expecta- 
tions have been surpassed. My determination to introduce it to the notice of 
my pupils, and, to the protection of my friends, is the strongest assurance 
which I can offer, of my concurrence in the general tenor of its interesting 
contents, 

I am, dear Sir, your obedient servant, 

Mr. J. W. Wright. J. ELMES, S. T. C, D. 



Bandon, 4th Jan. 1S37. 
Dear Sir — After an attentive perusal of your English Grammar, I have come 
to the determination of stating, as the result of my inquiries, that your work 
contains more acute investigation, more important original matter, and dis- 
plays a more intimate acquaintance with the structure of our noble language, 
than any other treatise on that subject with which I am acquainted. I think 
your book well calculated to assist the iugenious youth, in obtaining a power- 
ful knowledge of that very important, but too frequently neglected subject, 
(at least in our classical schools) English Grammar ; and, as such, I shall un- 
hesitatingly recommend it to my pupils. 

I am, dear Sir, truly yours, 
Mr. J. W. Wrtght. THOMAS ELMES, A. B., T: C.,D. 



Middleton, Nov. 1, 1836. 
Sir — 1 have examined your treatise on English Grammar. From its plan 
and general arrangement, I consider it much more practical and popular than 
any other work which professes to have the same object in view. I shall 
feel great pleasure in promoting its circulation. 

I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 

JOHN TURP1N, A. M., T. C, D., 
Mr. J. W. Wright. Principal Middleton Academy. 



Bandon, 26lh Nov., 1836. 
Dear Sir — I have read your Grammar of the English Language, with 
much attention ; and have been highly gratified with your improvements on 



8 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

former modes of construction. I shall feel great pleasure in recommending 
your book to my pupils. 

I am, dear Sir, yours sincerely, 

JOHN BROWNE, L. L. D., T. C, D. 

Mr. J. W. Wright. 



Tracton -Glebe, 10th Nov., 1836. 
Sir — Having carefully read your English Grammar, I feel much pleasure 
in expressing my opinion of its merits. I conceive, that I do not anticipate 
too much, in expecting that it will speedily evince its value ; not only as a 
school book, but, likewise, as a pleasing and effectual guide to the adult stu- 
dent, even without the aid of an oral instructor. 

I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
Mr. J. W. Wright. JOHN CONOLLY, A. B., T. C, D., Ok. 



Douglass, Nov. lA.th, 1836, 
My dear Sir — I have attentively read your work on English Grammar, 
and have derived from it information as well as pleasure : and I do sincerely 
hope, that ere long, it may be well known amongst the reading classes, espe- 
cially those engaged in the instruction of youth. 

I am, my dear Sir, yorcrs truly, 
Mr. J. W. Wright. HORACE TOWNSEND, A. M., T. C, D. 



Temple Brady Glebe, Nov. 20, 1836. 
My dear Sir — I have read, with attention, your work on English Gram- 
mar; and do not hesitate, to say, that it is, in my opinion, superior to any, 
treatise on the subject which I have yet seen. It is admirably calculated for 
the instruction of youth; and maybe perused with interest and advantage 
by those of riper years. I ani, my dear Sir, yours very truly, 

W. C. WILLIAMSON, A.M., T.C., D., Clk. 
Mr. J. W. Wright. 



155 Chamber-street, New ■ York, Nov. 17, 1837. 

I have examined, with much attention, " A Philosophical Grammar of the 
English Language, by Mr. Wright." 

This work, in my opinion, contains much, useful, original, and philosophical 
criticism, in this very important department of education. The rules of 
syntax are clear and comprehensive ; and the nature of, the verb, the most 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 9 

difficult part of grammar, has been, at length, satisfactorily explained. I 
can only desire, that others, who, like myself, are engaged in literary labors, 
for the benefit of youth, may take the trouble to examine this work, (which 
is now offered to the consideration of the American publick) with that degree 
of attention which may be easily snatched from the most busy occupations ; 
and, I doubt not, the result of their labors will decide in favor of its superior 
excellence. A philosophical work of this character, is much required, 
instead of the voluminous made-up grammers, which disgrace our literal 
ture. J. BARBER, 

Professor of Elocution, Columbia College. 



Wright's English Grammar. — Curiosity has induced us to examine this 
work. Under the impression that, on what we conceived an exhausted sub- 
ject, prepossessions in favor of new fangled doctrines, the result merely of 
fantastical conceptions, had spirited up their author to exhibition, we felt the 
more anxious, we candidly admit, to be amused rather than edified. 

We freely acknowledge, that our disposition has been checked; and, as an 
atonement for our too precipitate forebodings, we evince our repentance, by 
owning, that we have been most agreeably disappointed. We congratulate 
the publick, on the satisfactory prospects which this work affords. So criti- 
cal and intimate an acquaintance with the subject is displayed, as leaves little 
room to dispute the author's pretensions, on this subject, to knowledge of the 
first order. — New - York Evening Star, Nov. 14, 1837. 



Wright's English Grammar. — With Solomon, It was a maxim, that "no- 
thing new was under the sun ;" and, in truth, so thought we, in our day : at 
least, on the grammatical structure of our dialect, till otherwise convinced, 
by the ingenious, novel, and important disquisitions which this work evinces. 
To the punctilious and significant niceties of a subject, in such constant re- 
quisition, as speech, and through which the intellectual refinements of our 
natures are to be conveyed, we are bound to observe the most delicate 
attention, in order to supersede, as far as may be, our mutual liabilities to 
mis-statements, and consequent misconception. To this work, as a master* 
piece, in the interesting department of philological literature, we take leave 
to direct publick attention. — Long Island Star, Nov., 1837. 






10 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

New - York, 17th Feb., 1838. 

My dear Sir — Conformably to your desire, I have perused your "Phi* 
losophical Grammar of the English Language ;" and have bestowed on it 
that attention which the importance of its title seems to demand. 

I am induced to say, that I conceive it to be, not only a work of great 
and rare merit ; but, also, of incalculable benefit to the community in ge- 
neral. Indeed, I consider it the only treatise, on this interesting subject, 
which approaches to perfection. You will please order 100 copies for, 

Yours, very sincerely, 

JOHN POWER,' 

Rector of St. Peters\ and Vicar- general ofNete-York* 



IN PRESS, 

AND WILL SPEEDILY BE PUBLISHED, 

AN ABRIDGMENT 

O F 

Wright's Philosophical Grammar 

OF THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE: 

ADAPTED SOLELY TO THE CAPACITY OF YOUTHFUL 

STUDENTS, &C. 

BY THE AUTHOR. 
IS BEING PREPARED FOR THE PRESS, 

AND WILL BE PUBLISHED IN DUE TIME, 

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE 

OF THE 

LAW AND PRACTICE 

OF THE 

STATE OF NEW-YORK: 

ARRANGED CONFORMABLY TO 

Sir William Blackstone's Commentaries 

ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND, 

BY THOMAS W. CLERKE, 

COUNSELLOR AT LAW. 






SPINNING & HODGES, 

PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS, 

No. 162 NASSAU-STREET. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 

ADAPTED EQ.UALLY TO THK 

USE OF SCHOOLS OR PRIVATE STUDY: 

IN WHICH ARE CONTAINED, IN NUMEROUS INSTANCES, 

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL REFUTATIONS OF 

THE MOST PREVAILING SYSTEMS 

IN MODERN USE. 



BY JOSEPH W. WRIGHT, C. E., 

Author of "Rules for Composition," &c. <fcc 



He who advances science, by an earnest endeavor to improve the hunum 
understanding, deserves to be reckoned amongst the benefactors of mankind, 

Johnson. 



/ 

NEW-YORK; 

SPINNING & HODGES, 162 NASSAU-STREET, 

LONDON: 

WIIITTAKER & CO., 13 AVE MARIA LANE, 

1838, 






N %v 



Entered, accordingly to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, 

By Joseph W. Wright, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States 
for the Southern District of New -York. 



2>s~ 



f 4 



ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL, LONDON. 



TO COMMON SENSE, 



(the parent of genuine philosophy) 



THESE PAGES 



ARE HUMBLY DEDICATED, 



THE AUTHOR, 



Go 1 Go! fond theme, — thy Guardian bids thee go, 

And risk thy fate in Fortune's devious dance. 
One trait thou hast, — 'tis just the world should know,— 

Thou'rt forin'd to please, — perchance, thy part t'advance- 
Foil'd in thy hopes, of fanci'd plumes bereav'd^ 

Thou'lt quickly turn, whence Fate thy footsteps bent 
Accept thy doom, nor deem the world deprav'd,— 

'Tis its to know, — 'tis thine to bow asseyit. 
But list, thou fond one, — Fortune's witching smile, 

In accents meet, portends a boon endearing: 
To lull thy fears, thy boding ills beguile ; 

And grants thy Prayeb, — A calm, impartial hearing. 



PREFACE. 



As publick usefulness should be the aim of every in- 
dividual, however unimportant in society; so, each well 
meant contribution, towards so laudable a design, should 
be received with every mark of esteem, due to a sincere 
intention to please and inform. 

u The duty of every man," observes Doctor Johnson, 
" is, to endeavor, that something may be added, by his 
industry, to the hereditary aggregate of knowledge and 
happiness. To add much can, indeed, be the lot of few: 
but, to add something, however trivial, every one may 
hope ; and, of every honest endeavor, it is certain, that 
however unsuccessful, it will be at length rewarded." 

Conformably to an assertion so plausible, and a result 
so probable, the writer of the ensuing pages has ven- 
tured (he hopes not imprudently) to solicit publick in- 
vestigation; contented, if his views accomplish their 
intended object, — that of affording additional light to 



8 PREFACE. 

the interesting and critical subject which he has under- 
taken to advance. 

If the abilities of men were estimated by the repre- 
sentation which every man makes of his own, few would 
be compelled to experience the chagrin attendant on 
neglect; or, on the unsoothing consequences of disap- 
pointment, However, the powers conferred on our 
species are so numerous and varied, as to authorize an 
indulgence in the supposition, that some few individuals 
may be chosen to make strides hitherto unknown ; and 
thus, for some time, superintend, and ultimately direct 
the operations of the many, in particular cases. But, 
as instances of this nature are rarely discovered ; and, 
as the writer of this work is wholly unconscious of 
having displayed more ingenuity than numbers who 
would have taken equal pains ; he hopes, that few will 
consider him so enthusiastically disposed, as to suspect, 
that certain powers of discrimination, withheld from 
others, are peculiarly allotted to him. Thus, does he 
take an opportunity of averting the imputation of arro- 
gance, (if entertained) or, of his having acted on prin- 
ciples too visionary; by indulging in the exercise of 
pretensions to which, perhaps, he has no authentick title. 

Amongst the multiplicity of books which have, from 
time to time, been dispersed throughout the literary 
world on this subject, the obtrusion of a new work on 



PREFACE. 9 

the publick, must indisputably argue an opinion in its 
writer, that it is replete with information altogether 
novel and important ; so as to render it worthy of atten- 
tion: or, if ancient in substance, that it appears in a form 
original and truly advantageous; so as to gratify the 
reader, and amply recompense him for the trouble of 
perusal. To the latter of these consequences, the author 
presumes not to lay claims, further than those to which 
publick opinion shall be pleased to pronounce him en- 
titled : with respect to the former, he only deserves cen- 
sure, if his book shall afford no other information than 
what is already familiar to his discriminating readers. 

One of the first charges to which a writer on any 
scientifick branch is generally subjected, is that of pla- 
giarism. This charge, particularly in works of this 
nature, is frequently as unfounded as it is frivolous ; and, 
is seldom preferred, but by the illiterate and illiberal : 
for, the well judging know, that " the roads of science 
are narrow ; and, that those who travel over them must 
either meet or follow one another." 

The author does not urge this remark in his defence : 
no, — he is well aware, that in the generosity of his in- 
formed readers, rests his best protection from so unkind 
an accusation. Where he has been compelled to adopt 
the system of a discerning predecessor, he has unhesi- 
tatingly done so : but, on every point, where he con- 



10 PREFACE. 

ceived an error to have been inculcated, he indulged in 
the opportunity of presenting a refutation. 

When this work was being commenced, it was not 
undertaken with the most remote view to publication ; — 
the writer having intended his remarks for his own 
amusement ; the instruction of a few private individuals 
who attended his lectures ; but, chiefly, for the edifica- 
tion of his children, when of more mature years. Nor 
indeed would he, at present, exhibit his pages before the 
tribunal of criticism, on matter which he is sensible re- 
quires the nicest inspection, were he not importuned to 
that effect, by persons of his acquaintance, whom he 
conceived eminently qualified to judge of the merits of 
such a work. Thus, has he been flattered into publica- 
tion, by their approval of its contents. These are among 
the chief claims which he has to indulgence ; and they, 
he is induced to hope, will not fail, in some measure, to 
influence the mind of his considerate reader. 

The author has studiously adopted language, the most 
familiar with which he was conversant ; so as to accom- 
modate youth, and facilitate their acquaintance with the 
nature of the subject, and the peculiarities attending it. 

If, on any point, his mode of imparting information 
may be censured for its prolixity, he takes leave to ob- 
serve, that this is an intentional fault, if fault it may be 



PREFACE. 11 

denominated: for the reader is entreated to consider, 
that the writer was compelled to afford ample explana- 
tions to those who were novices in the science of gram- 
mar ; in order to enable them to comprehend, fully, the 
meaning of his lectures. This circumstance, accompa- 
nied by almost incessant arguments to uphold his system, 
and frequent refutations of the theories of others, so as 
to enforce his own, will, he should hope, be accepted, a,s 
a sufficient apology, for any circumlocution which his 
mode of instruction may otherwise be supposed to em- 
brace. 

The author, as may be seen, has not, in more than a 
few instances, selected his specimens of incorrect lan- 
guage from poetical compositions; knowing, that a cer- 
tain license must ever prevail in those writings : neither 
has he selected them from speakers or writers of incon- 
siderable repute ; as that could add little to his fame as 
a critick: but, he has designedly cited them from the 
productions of those potentates of English literature, 
who, by their critical sagacity, were generally supposed 
to have attained perfection in style and composition, 

He has also been peculiarly careful, in the introduc- 
tion of his examples, to inculcate genuine piety and 
sound morality: and, where he could not procure similar 
instruction suited to each rule, from those authors whom 
he has criticized, he has generally supplied the defect 



12 PREFACE. 

with apposite original matter: or, with extracts from 
writers of distinguished piety. 

Surely, then, if the author has, in the judgment of his 
reader, so far succeeded as he is led to imagine ; — if 
his scheme on most, if not on all points, be unquestion- 
able ; he is necessarily induced to conclude, that the 
success of his efforts will influence so general an acqui- 
escence in the accomplishment of his design, as must 
constitute a suitable recompense for his toilsome inquiries. 
If otherwise, and that he should have the mortifica- 
tion to fail in his undertaking, in publick esteem ; he is 
prepared to bear, with calm resignation, the ignominy 
and reproach awarded by his judges : saying, with Dr. 
Johnson, that "he meant no evil, — he meditated on 
good, and has fought the battle, though he missed the 
victory." 

U3 3 Exercises and Key to this work are being 
prepared ; by means of which, such illustrations of the 
different rules will be afforded, as will enable the atten- 
tive learner to acquire a familiar knowledge of the 
principles and peculiarities of grammar, in all its va- 
rieties. 



INTRODUCTION. 



As the limits generally assigned to an Introduction, 
can afford but a slight view of its main contents, a few 
hints, briefly communicated, will, perhaps, suffice. 

The usually received definitions have been generally 
varied, from conviction, that perspicuity, hitherto so 
defective, in this point, is one of the chief clews 
towards an understanding of this science. 

The import of the auxiliaries shall and will, so long 
contested by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
has been discussed : and, in the author's opinion, finally 
fixed under unexceptionable rules for their proper 
employment. 

The improper substitution of adjectives for adverbs, 
and adverbs for adjectives, so imperfectly adjusted and 
distinguished by writers on English grammar, has 
been considered; and rectified by regulations and 

2 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

reasonings comprehensible to the most ordinary capa- 
cities. ^ 

Of the Pronouns in general, a new and intelligible, 
because plain, theory has been adopted; and, their 
injudicious and hitherto improper applications, proved 
to the nicest demonstration. 

The doctrine of Verbs has undergone nearly a total 
change; and, such classifications and arrangements 
have been made, as contribute to familiarize this 
complex part of grammar to the mind of the most 
superficial reader. 

The Moods and Tenses have also participated of 
improvements; particularly, in the conjugations of Pas- 
sive Verbs, heretofore erroneously conducted by most, 
if not by all grammarians. 

Nouns of Multitude have been classed and adjusted, 
in so precise and simple a manner, as to preclude 
the possibility of erring in their applications. 

Participles are also ranked under their respective 
heads ; and their improper arrangement and truly 
ludicrous positions, under some of the most popular 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

theories, exposed and refuted : whilst their real regimen 
is exhibited, in the most convincing manner. 

Perhaps the assertion would appear presumptuous, 
nay, overcharged with eminent folly, do not facts 
attest the contrary, (as the work will show) that in a 
great measure, owing to the absence of perspicuous 
adjustment and philosophical definitions of the parts 
of speech, modes of phraseology still prevail, and pass 
the ordeal of criticism, as sterling and grammatical 
language; which, literally, convey ideas directly op- 
posed to the tenor of their received acceptions.* 

That such improvements and discoveries, as those 
on which the author calculates, should have fallen to 
his exclusive lot, is a circumstance which, perhaps, 



* The philosophical character of this work must constitute its best 
apology for that rigid adherence to the original tenor, and consequent 
application of words and phrases, which it occasionally presents. Idioms, — 
the offspring of tolerated capriciousness, while they refuse to enlist 
under the banner of regulated discipline, may, nevertheless, be received, 
as useful, — even as necessary outscouts and auxiliaries. To reject their 
services is not the intention of the author : nay, he is induced to view 
their eccentrick efforts, in the general cause of parole phraseology, 
with pleasure ; and, therefore, to treat them with becoming deference. 
But, he would humbly suggest the propriety, as well as the necessity, 
of distinguishing, with fastidious nicety, the difference between idioms 
and mere vulgar sayings ; usually denominated provincialisms. 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

will not excite surprise, when the reader is informed, 
that years have been devoted by the writer, solely to 
this subject. And, aware, that truth is by no means 
less valuable, because of modern attainment; and con- 
scious, that in what shape soever she presents her 
self, the harmony of her voice will be her best 
passport and recommendation to the protection of 
every friend of science, notwithstanding the many 
obstacles with which established prejudices thwart 
her interrupted but steady march : — Aware of these 
encouraging facts, and consequently guided by their 
natural results, the author assumes, in the presentation 
of his subject, a confidence, to which, under less 
inviting circumstances, he would be a total stranger. 

The author regrets, that throughout this work, 
circumstances render necessary a seeming asperity in 
the tone of comment practised on the philological 
speculations of Mr. Murray, in particular. On other 
occasions, he is well aware, that the etiquette of 
ordinary courtesy forbids this, as an inelegance, neither 
properly to be indulged by the professor of polite 
literature ; nor profitably to be imbibed by the student, 
whose acquirements should be based on the most 
refined principles of urbanity and gopd feeling. In 
extenuation, he takes leave to state, that, as an oppo- 
nent to the general theory of a writer whose vague 
assertions (for such he is compelled to pronounce them) 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

had, for some time, nearly acquired* the stability of 
axioms, he feels a special demand on the candor of 
his pretensions, (as an assumed professor of a know- 
ledge of right from wrong, on a subject so peculiarly 
important) to speak out; and consequently, to obey 
the demand, in all that sternness of language, which, 
as he conceives, a justified contradiction and decision, 
on such subjects, so imperatively, so indispensably 
require. 

frJ=*Throughout these pages, the reader will be 
pleased to observe, that the principal rules and defini- 
tions are set in the larger letter : the notes, explanatory 
remarks, and illustrative observations, in the smaller. 
The design of this arrangement is, that the youthful 
learner may the more readily recognize that portion 
which the author would have him commit to memory. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



The production of this work is trie result of consid- 
erable experience and observation. The distinguished 
recommendations which it has received in Europe, as 
well as in America, entitle its author to anticipate its 
favorable reception. To effect this the more satisfac- 
torily, he entreats permission to insinuate, that he is 
prepared to consider, attentively, any remarks which 
his discerning reader may be pleased to offer, so as 
to enable him to present to the publick something 
approaching to a perfect analysis of English Grammar, 



CONTENTS. 



BRANCH I— Orthography. 

Of Letters in general 25 

Remarks on Words, and general rules for spelling them 28 

BRANCH II— Etymology. 

Of the Parts of Speech and their Definitions 34r 

Op Substantives 36 

A general view of Substantives 36 

Of the properties of Substantives 36 

Of Number 37 

Of Gender 41 

Of Case . 42 

Of Person and Declension 44 

Op Articles 44 

Of Adjectives 48 

Of the degrees or states of the Adjective 48 

Of Adjectives of irregular comparison 50 

Of Adjectives which admit of no variation or state 51 

Of Pronouns 52 

Personal Pronouns 53 

Relative Pronouns 55 

That, proved to be no Conjunction 57 

Adjective Pronouns 60 

Of Verbs 64 

Of the different sorts of Verbs 65 

Strictures on Murray's theory of Neuter Verbs 65 

Of the properties of Verbs 67 



22 CONTENTS. 

Number and Person not properties of Verbs 67 

Of the Moods or Modes of Verbs , . . . . 69 

Observations on the Moods 71 

Of Tenses 72 

Strictures on Harris's theory of Time 73 

Of Conjugation 80 

Conjugation of the auxiliaries do, be, have 80-84 

Of the number of Tenses in the Potential Mood, &c. . . 86 95 

Of Auxiliary Verbs in general 89 

The Conjugation of a Principal and Irregular Verb 92 

Of the Conjunctive termination 94 

Improper application of Will. 97 

Conjugation in the Passive Voice 98 

Irregular Verbs 105 

Of Participles Ill 

Of Adverbs 114 

Mode of discovering doubtful parts of speech 115 

Of Prepositions 116 

Of Conjunctions r . 118 

Of Interjections 121 

Of Derivation 121 

BRANCH III.— Syntax. 

Of the nature of Syntax 123 

Of Sentences 123 

Syntax of the Substantive or Noun 124 

Of Nouns in the Possessive Case 125 

Erroneous theory of Cobbett and Murray 125-127 

Of Nouns connected by Copulative Conjunctions 131 

Of Nouns connected by Disjunctive Conjunctions 135 

Of the connection of Nouns and Pronouns of different 

persons 136 

Of a Singular Noun and Pronoun and a Plural one — 137 



CONTENTS. 23 

Of Nouns of Multitude 137 

Syntax op Articles 139 

Syntax of Adjectives 142 

Of their agreement with Nouns 142 

Of Double Comparatives and Superlatives 144 

Adverbs improperly used for Adjectives. (Murray's the- 
ory refuted) 144 

Participial Adjectives 147 

Remarks on Murray's theory of Distributive Adjectives. 148 
Misrepresentations of certain Parts of Speech . . 149 181 201 

The Syntax of Pronouns , 151 

A Relative no Nominative 152 162 188 

Observations on himself — themselves 153 

Strictures on Cobbett and Murray. (Personal Pro- 
nouns) 154-162 

Of the government of Relatives 162 

The importance of the position of the Relative 163 

Bishop Lowth on the Personal Relative (refutation) 167 

The Syntax of Verbs 168 

The agreement of a Verb with its nominative 168 

Of Active Verbs 171 

Murray's theory of Neuter Verbs refuted 172 

Mode of discovering Active from Neuter Verbs 175 

How Active Verbs become Passive — their peculiar theory 175 

A passive construction of Neuter Verbs — spurious 177 

Certain Verbs improperly used in passive senses and forms 177 

Of the peculiar requisites of the Verb to be 179 

Murray's theory of this Verb considered 180 

Peculiarities of Verbs in the Potential Mood 183 

The inflections of the Verb should correspond to the time 

of the action 184 

Misapplication of certain Verbs 188 

Of Participles , . . . 189 



24 CONTENTS. 

The existence of the case absolute denied 191 

True theory of the Participle as opposed to Murray's. . . 192 

Syntax of Adverbs. Their situations 198 

The words much and very , . , . . 201-202 

Of Negative Adverbs 203 

Syntax of Prepositions 204 

Syntax of Conjunctions 206 

Of those which require the Subjunctive Mood 207 

Impropriety of Murray's theory thereon 208 

Correspondent Conjunctions, Than followed by a Nom- 
inative Case 210-211 

Of Affirmative and Negative Adjuncts 211 

Syntax of Interjections 212 

Recapitulating Rule 213 

Remarks on Parsing . „ „ 223 

Orthographical Exercises 231 

Etymological Exercises — - 233 

A Catechetical Index 236 

BRANCH IV.— Prosody. 

Of Punctuation and Pronunciation ' 239 

Comma 241 

Semicolon -. 243 

Colon . 244 

Period 245 

Of Interrogation, Exclamation, and Parenthesis 245 

The Dash 246 

Of Accent 247 

Of Emphasis. \ - 247 

Of Quantity 248 

Of Pauses 248 

Modulation of the Voice 248 

Of Various Marks and Capitals 248 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is a science, by the knowledge 
of which w r e are enabled to speak and write the English 
language with propriety. 

It is divided into four branches; namely, Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



Towards the better under standiDg of this division, the follow- 
ing general representation may not inappropriately be recom- 
mended to the student's notice. The first of these branches treats 
of the sounds of letters ; and, of their due arrangement, in the 
composition of words. The second treats of the properties, quali- 
ties, and derivations of the words so composed. The third treats 
of the union, government, and positions of words, when employed 
in the formation of sentences. The fourth treats of the punctua- 
tion or pointing of sentences, and of their proper pronunciation, 
poetical arrangement, and harmony. 



BRANCH I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography is that branch of grammar which 
treats of the sounds and uses of letters, and of the 
proper method of spelling w r ords. 

The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters, of 
which the language is composed. These letters are the 
elements of the language, and represent certain articulate 
sounds which are produced by the organs of speech. 
3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Letters are divided into two classes : Vowels and Con- 
sonants. 

A Vowel is a perfect sound, which requires not the 
aid of another letter or sound to express it; as, A, E, 
I, O, U. 

A Consonant is an imperfect sound, and consequently 
requires the aid of a vowel to give it a perfect sound; 
as, F, L, R, D, — pronounced ef, el, ar, dee. 

The letters w and y, when independently considered, are conso- 
nants : however, as no word can be formed without a vowel ; and, 
as these letters, when placed after the commencement of each 
word into which they are introduced, assume the sounds, and 
perform the functions of vowels, they must be so considered, in 
such words as few, new ; try, fry. 

Consonants are generally classed into Mutes and Semi- 
vowels. 

The Mutes require the assistance of vowels to. pro- 
nounce them ; and, by this means, admit their naturally 
contracted sounds to be prolonged. 

The Semivowels have imperfect sounds ; and, are so 
denominated, because they partake of the sounds of vow- 
els and consonants. 

The Mutes are B, D, K, P, T, and C and G hard. 
The Semivowels are F, L, M, N, R, S, V, X, Z, and C and 
Q soft. L, M, N, R, are named liquids; because they 
easily unite with certain consonants, and seem to flow 
into their sounds, in the pronunciation of words. 

Having briefly exhibited the nature and generally received no- 
tions of vowels and consonants, we shall proceed to an examina- 
tion of the next important part of orthography : previously taking 
leave to refer the inquiring student, for such further information 
as he may deem necessary on this subject, to the best dictionaries ; 
as the main source whence such intelligence is usually gleaned. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 



OF DIPHTHONGS. 

A Diphthong is formed by the meeting of two vowels 
in a word or syllable ; and is pronounced by a single ef- 
fort of the voice; as, ai t in pail, rail; ea, in break, 
great ; ou, in pound, found ; and oi, in voice, point 

A Triphthong is formed by the meeting of three vow- 
els, pronounced in a similar manner ; as, eau, in beau ; 
ieu, in lieu. 

Diphthongs are of two sorts : Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Diphthong is that in which a slight sound of 
both vowels may be distinguished ; as, oi, in voice, point ; 
ou, in ground, round. 

An Improper Diphthong has but one vowel sounded ; 
as, oa, in coat. 

To impress a correct and comprehensive idea of the nature of 
dipththongs on the mind of the young learner, he may not unne- 
cessarily be instructed to cbserve, that if one of the vowels be 
suppressed in the above or similar examples, the words which 
contain them will, in most instances, not only lose their original 
sounds, but will, in general, assume forms which have no exist- 
ence in the English language: for example, — if o be suppressed 
in joint, we read jint ; — if i, we read jont : whereas, when the 
word takes its proper construction, we distinguish a partial sound 
of both letters ; thus constituting what grammarians denominate — 
the sound of a proper diphthong. 

As a general observation on tetters, we may remark, that they 
are arbitrary figures to which common consent has been obtained, 
in each particular language. When combined, they produce 
syllables; syllables, duly arranged and connected, produce words ; 
words, carefully united and properly adjusted, produce sentences; 
and, sentences, harmonically linked, furnish a speech, or discourse. 

Spelling is the art of properly connecting letters, so as to form 
words. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Remarks on Words, and general Rules fo7* 
spelling them. 

Words are articulate sounds, by which ideas are com- 
municated. As respects their origin, there are two sorts 
of them ; namely, Primitive and Derivative. 

The Primitive are those which cannot receive more 
simple forms than those which they already possess : and 
are so denominated, after the Latin primus, which de- 
notes the first, or radical forms; as, pure, free, fair. 

The Derivative are those which possess more extended 
forms, and flow from primitive words ; as, from pure, 
comes purity ; from free, freedom ; from fair, fairly. 

To the vast inconvenience of those who are unacquainted with 
the established rules of spelling, no dictionary of our language 
has yet been presented to the publick, by which the modes of spell- 
ing all words may be ascertained. This consideration, in par- 
ticular, has induced the exhibition of the following general rules^ 
to which the nicest attention is recommended : — 

. 1 Words of one syllable which terminate in the let- 
ters F, L, or S, preceded by a vowel, double the final 
consonant ; as, chaffs hall, hiss : except in the words if 
of is, as, has, was, his, thus, yes, us, and this. But, 
when words of this sort terminate in any other conso- 
nant, the final one is not doubled ; as, trap, top, rot : 
except in the words add, odd, err, inn, butt, egg, purr, 
buzz. 

2. Words which end in y, preceded by a consonant, 
form the plurals of nouns, the variations of verbs, verbal 
nouns, passed participles, comparatives, and superlatives* 



ORTOHGRAPHY. 29 

by changing y into i; as, spy, spies; carry, earnest, 
carrieth, or carries, carrier, carried: pretty, prettier, 
prettiest. But, in forming the present participle, the y 
is retained; as, cry, crying. When y, in those instances 
described, is preceded by a vowel, it is not changed; as, 
toy, toys : except in lay, say, pay, which produce laid, 
said, paid. 

3: Words which terminate in y, preceded by a conso- 
nant, when assuming an additional syllable, which com- 
mences with a consonant, generally change y into i ; as, 
tardy, tardily, tardiness : but, when preceded by a vow- 
el, it is seldom changed in the additional syllable; as, 
boy, boyish ; joy, joyous. 

4. When a word, which is accented on the last sylla- 
ble, concludes with one consonant preceded by a vowel, 
in annexing another syllable which commences with a 
vowel, we double the consonant; as, stop, stopped; refer, 
referred, referring : but, when the accent is on a" pre- 
ceding syllable, the final consonant is not doubled ; as in 
the words difference, and ironing : or, if a diphthong 
precedes ; as, rail, railing. 

5. Words which terminate in any double letter but /, 
and which require ness, less, ly, or Jul, after them, pre- 
serve that, letter double; as, harmlessness, carelessness, 
carelessly, successful, &c.-: but, those which terminate in 
double I, in the instance produced, usually omit one / ; 
as, fulness, dulness, fully, skilful When these termina- 
tions are added to words which end in silent e, they re 
quire the preservation of the e; as, baseness, baseles 
wisely, baleful: except in duty, truly, awful, and per 
haps a few others. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

6. Ment, when joined to words ending in silent e, 
generally preserves the e; as, excitement, abasement, 
infringement : except in abridgment, acknoivlcdgment, 
judgment When preceded by a consonant, it causes y 
to be changed to i ; as, accompany — accompaniment; 
merry — merriment, 

7. The terminations able and ible, when subjoined to 
words ending in silent e, generally cause the e to be 
omitted ; as, censure, censurable ; sense, sensible : but. 
when c or ^ soft precedes e, in the original, the e is 
preserved before able ; as, charge, chargeable ; peace t 
peaceable. 

8. The terminations ing, ish, and ous, added*to words 
ending in silent e, generally exclude the e; as, move, 
moving ; knave, knavish ; fame, famous. 

9. Words employed in composition sometimes omit 
those letters which appear superfluous in the original ; 
as, healthful, also, dunghil, foretel. This omission is, 
however, unjustifiable on principle, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



31 



The following is a list of words* which, agreeably to rule the 
fourth, require each terminating consonant to be doubled in 
forming the passed tenses and participles; as in the words omit, 
omitted ; get, getting t — - 



Abet 


befal 


cancel 


club 


cut 


dog 


abhor 


beg 


cap 


cod 


dab 


don 


abut 


beget 


capot 


cog 


dag 


dot 


acquit 


begin 


carol 


commit 


dam 


drag 


admit 


bet 


cavil 


compel 


dap 


dram 


allot 


bethral 


channel 


con 


debar 


dril 


amit 


bias 


chap 


concur 


debel 


drip 


annul 


bib 


char 


confer 


defer 


drivel 


appal 


bid 


chat 


control 


demit 


drop 


apparel blab 


chip 


coquet 


demur 


drub 


avel 


blot 


chisel 


counsel 


deter 


drug 


aver 


blur 


chit 


cram 


dig 


drum 


bag 


bob 


chop 


crib 


dim 


dub 


bam 


bowel 


clap 


crop 


din 


duel 


ban 


brag 


clip 


crum 


dip 


dun 


bar 


brim 


clod 


cub 


dishevel 


emit 


barrel 


bud 


clog 


cudgel 


dispel 


enamel 


bed 


cabal 


clot 


cup 


distil 


enrol 



* Their compounds excepted/ 



32 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




equal 


fulfil 


hem 


intromit 


manumit 


parcel 


equip 


fur 


hip 


job 


map 


pat 


escot 


gab 


hit 


jog 


mar 


patrol 


excel 


gad 


hitchel 


jug 


marshal 


peg 


extil 


gag 


hop 


jut 


marvel 


pen 


extol 


gambol 


hovel 


ken 


mat 


pet 


fag 


gem 


housel 


kennel 


miscal 


permit 


fan 


get 


hug 


kid 


mob 


pig 


fat 


g'P 


hum 


kidnap 


model 


pin 


fib 


glad 


hyp 


knab 


mop 


pip 


fig 


glib 


jam 


knit 


mud 


pistol 


fin 


glut 


japan 


knot 


nab 


pit 


fit 


gnar 


jar 


knub 


nap 


plan 


flag 


god* 


jet 


lag 


net 


plat 


flam 


gospel 


jig 


landam 


nib 


plod 


Sap 


got 


immit 


lap 


nim 


plot 


flat 


gravel 


impel 


let 


nip * 


plug 


flit 


grim 


inclip 


level 


nod 


pod 


flog 


grovel 


incur 


libel 


nousel 


pommel 


flop 


grub 


infer 


Kg 


nut 


pop 


fob 


gum 


instal 


lip 


occur 


postii 


forbid 


gut 


instil 


lob 


omit 


pot 


forestal 


hag 


in stop 


lop 


overred 


prefer 


foretel 


handsel 


inter 


lug 


pad 


pretermit 


fret 


hap 


intermit 


mad 


pan 


prig 


fub 


hatehel 


inthral 


man 


pannel 


prim 






* Goddess. 











ORTHOGRAPHY. 






pro- 


rival 


shrug 


spet 


sup 


trepan 


prop 


rivel 


shun 


spin 


swab 


trig 


propel 


rivet 


shut 


spit 


swag 


trim 


pulvil 


rob 


sin 


split 


swap 


trip 


pun 


rot 


sip 


spot 


swig 


trot 


pup 


rowel 


sit 


sprig 


swim 


tug 


put 


rub 


skim 


spur 


swop 


tun 


quarrel 


rum 


skin 


squal 


tag 


tunnel 


quip 


rut 


skip 


squit 


tan 


tup 


quit 


sag 


slam 


stab 


tap 


twin 


quob 


sap 


slap 


star 


tar 


twit 


ram 


scab 


slip 


stem 


ted 


victual 


rap 


scan 


slop 


step 


thin 


unrol 


ravel 


scar 


slot 


stir 


thrid 


wad 


rebel 


scrub 


slur 


stop 


throb 


wag 


recal 


scud 


smut 


strap 


thrum 


war 


recur 


scum 


snap 


strip 


tin 


wed 


refel 


set 


snip 


strut 


tinsel 


wet 


refer 


sham 


snivel 


stub 


tip 


whet 


regret 


shed 


snub 


stud 


top 


whip 


remit 


ship 


snug 


stum 


trammel 


whig 


repel 


shog 


sob 


stun 


transcur 


win 


revel 


shovel 


sop 


stut 


transfer 


wit 


rid 


shred 


sot 


submit 


transmit 


worship 


rig 


shrivel 


span 


sum 


trap 


wot 


rip 


shrub 


spar 


sun 


travel 


wrap 



BRANCH II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

The second branch of grammar is Etymology, 
which treats of the properties, qualities, and derivations 
of words. 

The English language is composed of nine sorts of 
words, called parts of speech; namely, the Substantive 
or Noun, the Article, the Adjective, the Pronoun, 
the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, the Con- 
junction, and the Interjection. 

1. A Substantive or Noun is a name given to every ob 
ject which the senses can perceive; the understanding 
comprehend ; or the imagination entertain ; as, man, 
book, plant; industry, virtue, prudence; space, spirit, 
eternity. 

2. An Article is employed to point out a noun ; and 
serves to limit or determine the extent of its significa- 
tion ; as, a blossom, an almontl, the gardener. 

3. An Adjective expresses the quality of the noun to 
which it is applied ; and may generally be known by its 
making sense in connection with it; as, "A good man," 
" A genteel woman." 

4. A Pronoun generally supplies the place of the noun 
to which it refers ; as, " The man who fears God and 



ETYMOLOGY, 3j 

loves him, is happy in his mind, though he should ba 
despised by the world." 

5. A Verb expresses the action, the suffering or en- 
during, or the existence or condition of a noun; as, "John 
smites;" "He is smitten; 7 ' "He lives." 

G. An Adverb is generally employed as an attributive, 
to denote some peculiarity or manner of action, with re- 
spect to the time, place, or order, of the noun or circum- 
stance to which it is connected ; as, " William speaks 
fluently ;" "A very handsome figure;'' U A nicely round- 
ed period." 

7. Prepositions preserve a connection between nouns 
and subjects which maintain a natural dependence on 
each other; and govern all nouns and pronouns to which 
they refer; as, " The mind of man is a grand storehouse 
of invention, if it be kept free from tumultuous emotions, 
and brought into exercise with discretion." 

8. Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each 
other ; and may suitably be denominated the joints or 
hinges on which language turns ; as, " The lord of the 
mansion arrived, and found none to assist his cause, 
but a few impotent menials, and those defective in 
courage." 

9. Interjections mark an emotion or excitement of 
the mind, produced by the observation, .feeling, or re- 
collection, of something extraordinary ; as, " Oh ! my 
God! why hast thou forsaken me!" "Prosperity sur- 
rounds thee to-day, — to-morrow, alas ! thou mayest be 
comfortless!" 



3G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In older to investigate the nature and applications of the parts 
of speech, a recapitulation of each description will be necessary; 
so as to enable the student to have immediate recourse to the 
original source from which the observations are deduced ; a cir- 
cumstance which cannot fail to facilitate inquiry. 



Etymology of Substantives. 

A Substantive or Noun is a name given to every ob- 
ject which the senses can perceive ; the understanding 
comprehend; or the imagination entertain; as, man, booh, 
plant; industry, virtue, prudence; space, spirit, eternity. 

Substantives are so manifold, that they cannot, as Mr. Locke 
properly observes, be enumerated. See Gen. Terms. Chap. 3. 

Substantives are of two kinds : Proper and Common. 

Proper Names or Substantives are special titles, by 
which individuals are distinguished from the general 
class or classes to which they belong ; as, from the com- 
mon term man, we adopt the proper name James. Eng- 
land, Lo?idon, the Nile, are proper names, selected from 
the general classes to which they pertain. 

Common Names are those which include, under one 
term, a whole class of objects ; as, animal, book, plant. 

In English, many proper names are rendered common, when 
used as epithets of distinction and similitude ; and, in those cases, 
are preceded by an article; as, "He has become a Hannibal:" 
thus importing, that his fame, in military exploits, is equal to that 
of Hannibal. 

To Nouns belong five properties ; namely, Number, 
Gender, Case, Person, and Declension. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Of Number. 

Number is of a two fold nature, — Singular and Plu- 
ral: and comprehends, accordingly to its application, the 
distinction between them. 

The Singular is employed to denote one object, whether 
individually or collectively considered ; as, a horse, a book. 
a hundred. 

The Plural determines more objects than one ; as, horses, 
books, hundreds. 

Proper names do not admit of plurality. We therefore errone- 
ously say, "He is one of the Hunters;" "These are the Alex- 
anders of the age ;" " She is one of the Miss Butlers." These 
should be, " One of the Hunter family ;" " These are of the Alex- 
ander disposition or diameter ;" " One of the Misses Butler:" that 
is, " Of the Misses^ of the Butler name or family, she is one." 



Many nouns admit of a singular construction only; 
as, pride, malt, gold, silver, money, filth, sloth, wheat, 
corn, pitch, musick, &c. 

Others are confined to the plural form; as, scissors, 
bellows, ashes, alms, oats, snuffers, hose, pincers, tongs, 
trowsers, &c. : and those which express the names of 
certain sciences ; as, Mathematicks, Pneumaticks, Hy- 
draulicks, &c. 

Some nouns are employed alike in each number; as, 
deer, sheep, swine.* 



* Pair is not of this class. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The general method of forming the plurals of nouns is, by 
adding s to the singular ; as, whip, whips ; dog, dogs ; book, 
books: but, as all general rules admit of exceptions, so does 
this. 

1. When the singular terminates in x, ch soft, sh, 55, or s, the 
letters cs must be added, to form the plural ; as, fox, foxes ; church, 
churches; bush, bushes; miss, misses; rebus, rebuses. But, when 
the singular ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s 
only; as, monarch, monarchs; stomach, stomachs; eunuch, 
eunuchs. 

2. Nouns which end in o 7 preceded by a vowel, form their plu- 
rals by adding 5; as, folio, olio, punctilio, seraglio, bagnio, &c. 
Those which end in 0, preceded by a consonant, require es; as, 
hero, cargo, echo, negro. 

3. Nouns which terminate in / or fe, become plural, by chang- 
ing those terminations into xes ; as, loaf, loaves; half, halves; 
calf, calves ; wife, wives ; thief, thieves : except grief, relief, re- 
proof, brief, dwarf, kerchief, mischief, and some others, which 
form their plurals (each) by the addition of s. Words which end 
in ff, follow the general rule ; as, ruff, ruffs; cuff, cuffs; muff, 
muffs : except staff, which, in the plural, is slaves. 

4. When the singular ends in y, without another preceding 
vowel in the concluding syllable, to form the plural, we change 
y into ies ; as, duty, duties ; fly, flies ; cry, cries : but, when 
another vowel precedes y, in the instance produced, the y is pre- 
served, and the plural formed by the general rule ; as. quay, 
quays ; day, days ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

5. Some nouns form their plurals, by converting a into e ; as, 
man, men ; woman, women. The nouns ox and chick, form their 
plurals by the addition of en; as, oxen, chicken. Brother be- 
comes brothers or brethren ; and child, children. Other nouns 
become plural, by changing 00 into ee; as, foot, feet; goose, geese; 
tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse become lice and mice. Penny 
becomes pence, or pennies ; and die, dice (for play) ; die, dies (for 
coining or stamping). For copious information on this subject, 
Butter's excellent spelling book maybe consulted with advantage. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

In English, c should not end a word, nor is the practice sanc- 
tioned in good dictionaries; the letter k being justly preferred. 
Indeed, if, in those cases, either letter were to be expunged, we 
may, in more accordance with the philosophy of the language, ex- 
clude c ; as the concluding sound of every word which terminates 
in these letters, takes the sound of k, not of c. Those who advo- 
cate the propriety of concluding with c, must, in order to establish 
plurals, forego their general position and rule ; (that of adding s 
to the singular) and, instead of writing and pronouncing accord- 
ingly, — sties, blocs, rocs, mimics, empirics, optics, &c, are con- 
strained, so as to become intelligible, to write and pronounce 
these words in the usual manner, — sticks, blocks, rocks, &c. : and 
thus to admit the gross anomaly, that ks becomes necessary to 
form the plural ! 

Further, this theory would be productive of another irregularity, 
not less strange in its results ; it would, in effect, support the pro- 
priety of maintaining that the word king, not the termination ing, 
was, in certain cases, the necessary appendage to form the present 
participle : instance, mimic would produce mimicking; and traffic, 
trafficking-, &c. In truth, the pursuit of this thesis would, in the 
formation of other words and participles, involve a doctrine so 
ludicrous in its results, as to ill requite its mover for the introduc- 
tion: thus, public, contrary to rule, would require kly to form the 
adverb publicly, and the participle of dream would become dream- 
king, &c. 

The word news, which, by some grammarians, is treated as a 
singular noun, may admit of either a singular or plural applica- 
tion, as the sense may require. For example, the relation of one or 
more events, not previously known to a querist, constitutes what 
is usually understood by the term news. To ascertain and fix its 
import would feebly recompense the trouble of examination : how- 
ever, if a confident assertion may be advanced, without displaying 
all that critical acumen necessary to a perfect determination on 
the subject, we should feel disposed to differ from those gramma- 
rians, by ranking this word among those of a plural construction. 
It is frequently used as a substitute for new things. 

The ensuing list of words, extracted from the Hebrew, Greek, 
and Latin languages, may not unprofitably be introduced*^ to the 
learner's notice, as their common employment in English compo- 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



sition renders an acquaintance with them indispensably necessary, 
so as to distinguish their plurals from their singulars :— 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Allantois 


Allantoises 


Focus 


Foci 


Animalculum 


Animalcula 


Genius 


Genii* 


Antithesis 


Antitheses 


Genus 


Genera 


Apex 


Apices 


Hypothesis 


Hypotheses 


Appendix 
Apsis 


( Appendices, or 

1 Ignis fatuus 

f Appendixes 

Apsides Index 


Ignus fatui 
[ Indices, or 
I Indexest 


Arcanum 


Arcana 


Lamina 


Laminae 


Automaton 


Automata 


Legumen 


Legumina 


Axis 


Axes 


Magus 


Magi 


Banditto 


Banditti 


Medium 


Media 


Basis 


Bases 


Memorandum 


Memoranda 


Cantharis 


Cantharides 


Metamorphosis 


; Metamorphoses 


Cherub 


Cherubim 


Momentum 


Momenta 


Crisis 


Crises 


Phalanx 


Phalanges 


Criterion 


Criteria 


Phcenomenon 


Phenomena 


Datum 


Data 


Radius 


Radii 


Diaeresis 


Diaereses 


Saliva 


Salivae 


Desideratum 


Desiderata 


Scoria 


Scoriae 


Dogma 


Dogmata 


Seraph 


Seraphim 


Echines 


Echini 


Stamen 


Stamina 


Effluvium 


Effluvia 


Stimulus 


Stimuli 


Ellipsis 


Ellipses 


Stratum 


Strata 


Emphasis 


Emphases 


Tripos 


Tripodes 


Encomium 


Encomia 


Virtuoso 


Virtuosi 


Erratum 


Errata 


Vortex 


Vortices 



* Genii,, denote aerial spirits,— Geniuses, persons of genius. 
t Indices, algebraick quantities, — Indexes, tables of reference. 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 



Of Gender. 

Gender is a term which is employed for the distinction, 
of nouns with regard to sex and species.* 

There are three Genders, — the Masculine, the Fem- 
inine, and the Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male 
kind ; as, a man, a horse, a cock. 

The Feminine Gender denotes animals of the female 
kind ; as, a woman, a mare, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes those objects which are 
neither males nor females, but inanimate matter; as, a 
stone, a book, a house. 

In addition to these, some grammarians have enumerated a 
doubtful gender; and, in support of their position, assert, that many 
creatures familiar to man cannot, on first inspection, be said to 
belong exclusively to either the masculine or feminine ; as, an 
oyster, a snail, a bird, a fish, a snake. To this arrangement Ave 
should unhesitatingly subscribe, were a pronoun invented which 
would as effectually mark this gender as the pronouns he and she 
do those already described. But, as the absence of this, and the 
probable impossibility of its adoption, must prove an insuperable 
objection to their scheme, we feel imperatively bound to with-hold 
our assent from an opinion which, at most, could be productive of 
little else than useless grammatical litigation. We may further ob- 
serve, that though the genders of the animals oyster, snail, bird, &c, 
may be unknown, yet they are invariably distinguished by the pro- 
noun it. Thus, if we say, "John has a fish," the person who de- 
sires to be informed of its kind or genus, will inquire, " What 
sort offish is it?" to which we answer, u It is an oyster:" and so 



* For the convenience of parsing, & common gender may be recognized.- 
Under this head may be ranked the nouns parent, scholar, person, &c. 

* 4 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the animals bird, snail, &c. Besides, the inference does not le- 
gitimately follow, that because we doubt in instances of this nature, 
or are incapable of discovering with facility their particular sexes, 
that such animals are devoid of the distinctions of gender. Inves- 
tigation would fully determine the reverse, and consequently fur- 
nish just grounds to question the economy, as well as to reject the 
assumed accuracy of the proposed theory. 

Many nouns, though unquestionably neuter, are, by a 
rhetorical figure, made to represent animate objects. Thus, 
in speaking of the moon, we say, " she shines;" of a ship, 
"she sails;" and, of the sun, "he is bright." " Time passes 
his sentence at leisure." 

Gender is so familiar a subject, that further remarks thereon 
seem to be unnecessary. It may therefore be dismissed, by ob- 
serving, that there are three principal methods of distinguishing 
the genders of all nouns : — first, by a common difference of termi- 
nation, ending in ess ; as, poet, poetess ; actor, actress. Second, by 
the addition of a noun or pronoun to the principal word ; as, man- 
servant, maid-servant ; he-goat, she-goat. Third, by a total differ- 
ence of terms j as, boy, girl ; king, queen ; lord, lady. 



Of Case. 

Case signifies the state or situation in which nouns or 
pronouns are placed, so as to exhibit their variations and 
terminations in declension. 

To English nouns belong three cases; namely, the 
Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. 

The Nominative is the acting member in a sentence ; 
and may be known, by its answering to the question 
Who? when persons are the actors; or What? when 
inferior agents, whether animate or inanimate, become 
the actors ; as, " John struck Richard," Here, John k 



ETYMOLOGY, 43 

the actor ; and is known to be the nominative, by its an- 
swering to the question, "Who struck Richard?" "A 
tree fell on the ground." " What fell ?" A tree. 

The Possessive case denotes possession or property; 
and, when written in the singular, is formed by affixing 
an apostrophe, with the letter s to the qualifying word ; 
as, "John's books;" "Richard's horse:" but, when the 
plural noun of this case ends in s, the other s is omitted, 
and the apostrophe reserved ; as, " The Reviewers' re- 
marks ; " The Apostles' creed." 

Some words, though used in a singular construction, 
omit the apostrophick s; as, "For goodness' sake;" 
" For righteousness' sake ;" " One of Augustus' band." 
Acts. * 

The only feasible reason that can be oiFered in support of this 
deviation from the general mode of expressing the possessive case 
is, that the discordant and hissing sound to which utterance would 
be liable from the use of such expressions as, "The Apostles's 
creed;" "For righteousness's sake," &c, may be suppressed, as 
too grating to the ear. 

The Objective case represents the object of an action; 
or, of a related circumstance : and is generally preceded 
by a verb active, or a preposition, expressed or under- 
stood; as, "John loves Richard;" " He devotes his time 
to study" 

This case is generally known, by its answering to the 
question Whom? or What?* Thus, in the phrase, 
"John loves Richard," — Richard is known to be in the 
objective case, by inquiring, " Whom does John love ?" 
" To what does he devote his time?" To study. 

■ What, on these occasions, is generally accompanied by a preposition, 



44 / ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Of Person and Declension. 

A. 

Person comprehends the orderly distinctions of nouns 
and their substitutes. 

To nouns belong two persons, either singular or plu- 
ral ; namely, second and third. All nouns of which we 
treat belong to the third person : those addressed are of 
the second. 

Declension comprehends the variations which nouns 
and pronouns receive, so as to exhibit their modifications 
and inflections. The declension of a noun is thus ex- 
plained, in connection with another word : — 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Case. The boy plays. The boys play. 

Possessive. The boy's play. The boys 1 play. 

Objective. The play of the boy. The play of the boys. 

The word boy, in the above variation of the noun, is designed 
to show the form which it assumes in each case. In the last, it is 
placed in the objective form; and is under the government of the 
preposition of. Detached, — it is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. The boy. The boys. 

Poss. The boy's. The boys\ 

Obj. The boy. The boys. 



Etymology of Articles. 
An Article is employed to point out a noun; and 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

serves to limit or determine the extent of its signification ; 
as, a blossom, an almond, the gardener. 

The English language has but three articles ; A, An, 
and The. 

The two first are synonymous, and are applied to ob- 
jects, individually named ; as, a man, a horse ; an apple, 
an almond. 

The Article a becomes an, when it precedes a word 
which commences with a vowel or the sound of one* (as 
in a silent h ;) as, an organ, an hostler. 

Writers not less distinguished than Pope and Johnson have oc- 
casionally swerved from this rule ; by using an, instead of a, be- 
fore words commencing with an audible h i however, the practice 
is erroneous ; and should be avoided. The reason for which this 
change, in the application of the article, takes place, will be appa- 
rent, from the following consideration: — Man being endowed 
with the powers of speech for the purpose of expressing his ideas, 
nothing is more consonant to reason and nature, than that he 
should employ the gift in that manner which is least allied to dis- 
sonance, and most to euphony. Hence, the disagreeable and in- 
convenient utterance arising from the expressions, — a organ, a 
hostler, is judiciously and naturally suppressed, for the more vol- 
uble and convenient expressions, — an organ, an hostler. 

The Articles are appropriately denominated definite 
and indefinite. 

The is the Definite Article. It is special in its appli- 
cation, as by the ensuing examples will be demonstra- 
ted : — " Send the horse and the cart by the messenger." 

A or An is the Indefinite Article. It is used in an un- 
limited sense, having no peculiar reference to an object ; 
as, " Send a horse and a cart by a messenger." 

By the former of those examples, we perceive, that the speaker 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or writer alludes to some particular horse, cart, and messenger, 
previously distinguished, in conversation or writing, by the par- 
ties concerned: whilst the latter indicates, that any horse, cart, 
and messenger, will suit the required design. 

, The articles, in most instances, have the same import as the 
words one, this, that; as may be observed, by their pointing out 
individuals in the same manner as the articles do. Thus, — a 
book, signifies one book: the book, means this or that book. This 
similarity, and almost synonymous signification in these words, 
the author has long noticed; and, by frequent application, he was 
much impressed with the plausibility of his conceptions:— how- 
ever, timidity, for some time, overruled his anxiety to give pub- 
licity to a postulatum, which, however imposing, could be ob- 
truded on the mind of his reader, as merely hypothetical ; till he 
was happily relieved, by the corresponding opinion of Home 
Tooke, whose thesis on this subject has not been questioned. 
After much satisfactory reasoning, he thus concludes: — "After 
the same manner may all sentences be resolved, where the sup- 
posed conjunction that (or its equivalent) is employed : by such 
resolution, it will always be discovered to have merely the same 
force and signification ; and to be, in fact, nothing but an article." 

Mr. Murray observes, — "The articles are omitted before nouns 
that imply the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, 
arts, metals, herbs ; as, ' prudence is commendable ;' ' falsehood is 
odious;' 'anger ought to be avoided.' " He has, however, ne- 
glected to inform the student in what instances; or, for what 
cause. To witness an author of English grammar— a professor 
of an intimate acquaintance with the use and distribution of 
words, thus confidently asserting the existence of universal posi- 
tions, in contradistinction to the instances which hourly practice 
sustains, is not a little extraordinary. In proof, let the following 
cases demonstrate: — " The prudence of some is exemplary; 5 ' "A 
falsehood is odious ;" " The anger of his countenance was visible. 
Add to these, an example given under the lOth rule of his syntax ". 
— " The wrath of Peleus' son." The reason for which nouns o 
this description are occasionally used without articles is, that t n ey 
may be expressed in the widest or most extended sense of which 
they will admit. Why Mr. Murray has laid so much stress on 
the circumstance of the omission of articles "before" those nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

is not easily discovered; particularly, as we perceive, that most 
nouns are subjected to a similar peculiarity, especially when em- 
ployed in the plural number : as, " Books are useful;" " Snow is 
white;" "Bread is wholesome;" "Meat is nourishing." — See 
Syntax of Substantives, — Obs. on Rule VII. 

The Articles are seldom prefixed to proper names, un- 
less in cases of distinction and comparison; as, " He has 
the strength of a Hercules;' 7 " The Chinese are more 
crafty than the Europeans.'' 

All grammarians have agreed, respecting the applications of 
the articles to nouns,— the indefinite being applied to nouns in the 
singular number only, whether individually or collectively con- 
sidered; as, a man, a horse, a dozen, a hundred: the definite, — to 
nouns, both of a singular and plural construction; as, the man, 
the men ; the horse, the horses. 

Mr. Murray states, that " a remarkable exception" to the use 
of the indefinite article before nouns in the singular number takes 
place in the words few and many; as, "a few men — a great many 
men:" however, he admits, that "they mean a small or great 
number taken collectively ; thereby giving the idea of unity." 

The agreement of the article, in those cases, does, by no means, 
imply an exception to the general rule : because those expressions, 
"a. thousand men, — a few men, — a great many men," though 
comprehending many individuals, are units of multitude ; and 
consequently render those cases perfectly accordant to the gen- 
erally entertained notion on the subject. 

Some of our most celebrated English writers depart from 
the usual mode of expression, by using a plural noun in a 
singular form; by means of the introduction of the indefinite 
article: Thus, Blair, — "On the ancient stage we see the poets 
struggling with many an inconvenience.''' This sentence, express- 
ed in its natural order, would be, "many inconveniences" 

We shall conclude our remarks on the etymology of articles,, 
with the introduction of the ensuing circumstance: — A very 
emphatical application of the definite article is observable in the 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

second book of Samuel, where the prophet Nathan is represented, 
as addressing king David in paraboliek language ; in which, he 
indirectly charges David with a violation of the divine law. The 
king, wholly unconscious that he was the person whom the pro- 
phet designated, unhesitatingly declared, that the individual who 
had committed the alleged offence, should not only restore the in- 
jured party four fold, as a remuneration, but should also suffer 
death, as an expiation for his infamy. The sentence pronounced 
— Nathan delivered that poignant accusation, — "Thou art the 
man." David, awakened to a sense of his guilt, exclaimed, — "J 
have sinned against the Lord!" Had the indefinite article been 
» employed on this occasion, as, " Thou art a man," no compunc- 
tion would have been excited in the king's breast, — this being a 
form of expression incapable of implying the least censure or 
conviction. By attention to this remark, the learner must be fully 
aware of the peculiar force and importance of the definite article, 
in such cases. 



Etymology of Adjectives. 

An Adjective expresses the quality of the noun to 
which it is applied ; and may generally be known, by its 
making sense in connection with it ; as, " A good man ;" 
" A genteel woman." 

Few remarks, on adjectives, come under the head of etymology ; 
except those which attend their degrees of comparison : because 
they participate not of those properties peculiar, in many senses ) 
to other parts of speech ; and consequently do not undergo their 
variations. For example, we say, "A genteel man; a genteel 
woman: — "genteel men; genteel women" — "a tall tree; tall 
trees." In none of those cases do the adjectives vary. 

The degrees of comparison are two: the Comparative 
and the Superlative. 

To these, Mr .Murray has added a positive degree / in support 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

of which, he observes, that "some writers affirm, that the positive 
is improperly termed a degree of comparison ; as it seems to be 
nothing more* than the simple form of the adjective, and not to 
imply either comparison or degree." In reply to w r hicb, he ar- 
gues, — " This opinion may be well founded, unless the adjective 
be supposed to imply either comparison or degree, by containing 
a secret or general reference to other things; as, when we say — 
'he is a tall man, — this is a fair day,' we make some reference to 
the ordinary size of men, and to different weather." 

The employment of the expression degrees of comparison is, in 
truth, an inappropriate one; unless where comparison prevails, 
or is intended. Certainly, no degree of comparison is implied in 
the words tall and fair; further than a distinction of terms, to 
denote certain qualities, as they are apprehended by our senses. 
For instance, — If we say, "that substance is hard, — this sub- 
stance is soft" w T e introduce no comparison between the hard 
substance and another; nor between the soft substance and ano- 
ther; but, merely a distinction by terms in general use, so as to 
represent the one, as a firm cohesion ©f the solid parts of matter, 
that cannot be easily made to alter its figure : the other, as a body 
that will vary its shape, by a slight pressure. Indeed, we never 
use those terms, unless w T hen ideas of their opposites manifestly 
suggest their selves : for assuredly, none will employ the word 
truth, except w r ith the intention of placr'ng it in juxtaposition with 
its adverse term falsehood. Thus, one common term latently inti- 
mates the idea of the reverse : and here, the quality of truth, w r hen 
used in a general manner, is not applied comparatively ; but, in 
contradistinction to the word falsehood. A similar observation 
pertains to the introduction of the words hard, soft, &c, which 
are employed, only as arbitrary terms, that bespeak a contrariety 
of quality to each noun to which, by implication, they are op- 
posed. 

Adjectives admit of three states: the Positive, the 
Comparative, and the Superlative. 



' This langmge is equivocal. It may signify, that the positive seems to bs 
nothing more than it seems to be the simple form of the adjective : or, that 
it seems to be nothing else, but the simple form of the adjective. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Positive or direct state declares the primitive 
quality of the object to which it is prefixed ; as, good, 
prudent : that is, u A good man ; a prudent woman." 

The Comparative state augments or decreases the Pos- 
itive, in a greater or less proportion; as, from the posi- 
tive forms, mild, humble, we adopt the terms, milder, 
more humble : or, less mild, less humble. 

The Superlative state augments or decreases the Posi- 
tive in the greatest or least proportion ; as, mildest, most 
humble : or, least mild, least humble. 

The Positive becomes the Comparative, if a word of 
one syllable, by adding r or er to the end of it ; and the 
Superlative, by adding st or est; as, white, whiter, 
whitest: sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 



As a difference in the modes by which these states are formed is 
observable, the following explanation will afford some illustra- 
tion to the learner: — When the positive ends in e, the compara- 
tive and superlative are formed (successively) by the terminations 
r and st: otherwise, by er and est. See the examples. 

The words more and most, though unusually placed before ad- 
jectives of one syllable, will have the same tendency ; as, street, 
more sweet, most sv;cet. 

Words of more than one syllable, are rarely compared by er. 
and est ; the adverbs more and most being employed in preference ; 
as affording more harmony to expression. However, in these 
cases, custom generally determines. We may say, genteeler, and 
genteelest ; nobler, and noblest : but, we should not say, frugaler, 
frugalest ; nor, difficuUer, dijjicidtest. 

Some adjectives in common use do not follow the general rules. 
These are therefore irregular ; and are as follow : — 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 


Better, 


Best. 


Bad, or 111, 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Little, 


Less, 


Least. 


Old, 


Older, or Elder, 


Oldest, or Eldest, 



51 



The termination ish, and the word rather, are frequently used 
to express slight degrees of comparison. The former seems to 
intimate diminution; as, from sweet, comes sweetish; from salt, 
saltish. The latter denotes increase or excess ; as, " His address 
is rather pleasing." 

In English, many words assume the positions of adjectives, and 
serve, in a similar manner, to point out nouns ; but do not admit 
of comparison: because they possess neither increase nor de- 
crease of quality. They are generally denominated pronominal 
adjectives, distributive adjective pronouns, demonstrative adjective 
pronouns, &c. ; as, this, that, each, every } either, neither, some, all, 
other, another, any, such, several, &c. 

The numeral adjectives are similarly situated. They are one, 
two, three, &c. All adjectives which conclude in the termination 
most, possess already the superlative state ; as, foremost, utmost, 
uppermost, &c. 

The following is a list of adjectives which admit of no variation 
of state : — 



Square 


chief 


real 


unlimited 


dead 


extreme 


positive 


immeasurable 


right 


proper 


visible 


dry 


straight 


just 


innocent 


evident 


round 


immediate 


odd ** 


obvious 


clear 


supreme 


secure 


certain 


entire 


dumb 


wet 


deaf 


complete 


flat 


free 


pure 


empty 


direct 


false 


excellent 


perfect 


unbounded 


exact 


equal 



52 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



guilty 


even 


perpendicular 


quiet 


genuine 


level 


apparent 


harmless 


sterling 


honest 


absolute 


determined 


eternal 


fair 


blind 


accurate 


full 


true 


unjust 


permanent 


plain 


untrue 


correct 


incomprehensible 


superior 


ehaste 


sober 


everlasting 


universal 


steady 


punctual 


omnipotent, &e. 



To these may be added the names of colors ; as also several 
participial adjectives. 

Nouns which are employed to denote the qualities of other nouns 
become adjectives ; as, spring-waicr, paper-mill, sugar-cane. 



Etymology of Pronouns. 

A Pronoun generally supplies the place of the noun 
to which it refers ; as, "The man who fears God, and 
loves him, is happy in his mind, though he should be 
despised by the world." 



That pronouns are peculiarly serviceable, in preventing the 
frequent recital of nouns, will appear, by the ensuing exhibition 
of the above example : — " The man, which man fears GgcI, and 
loves God, is happy in the maris mind, though the man should be 
despised by the w T orld." — Thus, we perceive, that independently 
of the circumlocution which would attend this mode of expression, 
the fluency of conversatipn would be much retarded ; a circum- 
stance sufficient to show the vast importance cf pronouns. 

In English, Pronouns are of three sorts; namely, Per- 
sonal, Relative, and Adjective Pronouns. 



ETYMOLOGY, 53 



Of Personal Pronouns. 

To Personal Pronouns belong five properties ; 
namely, Number, Gender, Case, Person, and Declension. 

Pronouns have two numbers: the Singular and the 
Plural : and three persons in each of their numbers. 

The distinction of gender is confined to the third per- 
son ; and is represented in the words he, she, it. 

A table of their vaiious forms will afford the learner satisfactory 
information of the qualities above described, and of their cases and 
declensions : — 





Singular, 


Plural, 


First Person. 


I. 


We. 


Second. 


Thou. 


Ye, or you. 


Third. 


He, she, or it. 


They. 



Here, we perceive three persons in each number ; first, second, 
and third ; to the last of which is attributed the sexual distinction : 
and, for the following reason: — As the sex of each of the persons 
involved in the first and second must be supposed to be known to 
each other, when in converse, no pronoun is required to make the 
gender : But, as the third person or object of which they treat may 
be absent or unknown, the distinction of gender becomes necessary ; 
and is therefore marked, lie and she, with the substantive pronoun 
it ; which serves to represent those nouns that belong to the neuter 
gender. 

Pronouns have three cases: the Nominative, the Pos- 
sessive, and the Objective ; and are thus declined : — 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





FIRST PERSON. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. Case. 


i. 


We. 


Possessive. 


My, or mine, 


Our, or ours. 


Objective. 


Me. 

SECOND PERSON. 


Us. 


Noty. Case. 


Thou. 


Ye, or you. 


Possessive. 


Thy, or thine. 


Your, or ) r ours. 


Objective. 


Thee. 


You. 



THIRD PERSON MASCULINE GENDER. 

Norn. Case. He. They. 

Possessive. His. Their, or theirs. 

Objective. Hirn. Them. 



THIRD PERSON FEMININE GENDER. 

Norn. Case. She. They. 



Possessive. 
Objective. 



Her, or hers. 
Her. 



Their, or theirs. 
Them. 



THIRD PERSON NEUTER GENDER. 

Norn. Case, It. They. 



Possessive. 
Objective. 



Its. 
It. 



Their, or theirs. 
Them. 



Where the two possessive forms occur, in the above exhibition 
mf the cases of pronouns, the learner will observe, that the former 
is employed when the noun follows; as, " This is my book:" — 
the latter form, generally, when the noun precedes; as, "This 
book is mine." 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

The word thm, in grammatical construction, is preferable to 
you, in the second person singular : however, custom has fami- 
liarized the latter, and consequently made it more general, though 
bad grammar. To say, " You are a man" is not grammatics! 
language; the word you having reference to a plural noun only. 
It should be, " Thou art a r.ianP 

The personal pronoun it, of which we shall treat at large in an 
appropriate place, is frequently used in so unlimited a manner, as 
to have reference to no noun whatever. This is erroneous; for, 
being a personal* pronoun, it not only refers to a noun, but must, 
on all occasions, occupy the place of one. 



Of Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns are those which relate to some 
principal subject, word, or phrase, generally contained in a 
preceding part of the sentence, to that in which they are 
employed ; thus causing such subject, word or phrase, to 
be denominated the antecedent to the relative. The En- 
glish language has three of them; namely, , who, lohich, 
and that 

The following examples will sufficiently illustrate the use end 
signification of each:—'* The man who fears God is happy ;" u This 

is the book wKich I want;" " He thai performs his duty wil] be 
rewarded." 

The learner is particularly instructed to observe, that a relative 
is never employed, unless when an implied circumstance dcmrr.ee- 
its introduction. For example, — " The master taught ue," is a 
sentence capable of conveying as much information to the mind as, 
" The master who taught us :" consequently, the relative would be 
superfluous, if no circumstance depended on its introduction. We 
therefore mean, — The master who taught us is good, bad, or 
living, &e. See Syntax of Pronouns, 



*The ei-irhet/-(? \ ap|Jlied to all ^ioiicutis whicji represent 

and nersoncte ebiects. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Relative who is ^applied to persons, but not to in- 
ferior animals, nor to inanimate matter ; as, " The man 
who seeks wisdom will find her:" except in poetry, where 
a certain license is allowable : as, — 

" Then proudly rag'd 
■ The liquid surge whose fury vents in foam, 
" When boist'rous Neptune shakes his dreary home." 

The Relative who has no variation of number. It is 
employed alike in the singular and plural ; and is thus 
declined : — 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative Case. Who. 
Possessive Case. Whose. 
Objective Case. Whom. 

The Relative which refers to inferior animals, and to 
inanimate objects; as, " This is the horse which I bought;" 
44 That was the crime which caused his disgrace." We 
could not, with propriety, say, "the horse who — the 
crime who. 11 

Which is employed in pointing out persons, when we 
mean to distinguish one person from another; as, "Which 
man do you want?" 

The word whose, as has been shown, is sometimes made the pos- 
sessive of which. This, though occasionally admissible in rhyth- 
mical composition, can, with no propriety, be permitted in prose. 
The following sentence is therefore defective in this particular : — 
" Some writers embellish their style with high sounding words, 
whose chief effect is no other than to give their language a stiff and 
forced appearance." — Blair. Led. 24. 

The Relative that may be applied to either persons or 



ETY&CLCGY. 57 

things; as, "He that seeks wisdom will find her;" ,; la- 
gratitude is a crime thai deserves reprobation." 

When used as a relative, it prevents the frequent recital 
of who and width, and consequently suppresses tautology : 
thus, — 4t The person tcho wrote was he that did the 
mischief." 

The word what sometimes includes a relative and a noun ; 
as, " He gave me what I wanted:" that is, " He gave me 
the thing which I wanted." 

Who, which, and what, when employed in asking ques- 
tions, are -called interrogative pronouns; as, " Who calls 
me?" "WhiekhoGk is mine?" "What is your name?" 

The word thai, when immediately followed by the noun to 
which it relate?, is a demonstrative pronoun; as, "TY^fccd is 
wholesome." It is a relative when it may be used instead of who 
or which ; as, " They that, or, who sow in tears may reap in joy ;" 
" This is the thing that, or, which I want:" but, it cannot, as Mr. 
Murray imagines, be employed as a conjunction. He observes, 
" It is a conjunction when it joins words and sentences together,* 
and cannot be turned into who or which without destroying the 
sense; as, ' Take care that every day be well employed;' { I hope 
he will not believe that I have acted improperly.' " 

Mr. Murray is not singular in his opinion on this point. Seme 
of those persons whom he designates respectable grammarians have 
adopted similar views: but, grammarians, whether of personal or 
literary respectability, should not be supposed capable of command- 
ing implicit obedience to theoretical speculation, at the expense 
of facts and the philosophy of the language. Many, too many, who 
have accidentally acquired some trifling celebrity in the republick 
of letters, unsuspectingly impose their visionary notions, on the 
most intricate subjects, on a large portion of mankind, without the 
least reserve; thus, too frequently volunteering the exercise of 



On the expression "join together," see the recapitulating rale. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

confident, but mistaken pilotage, for the imitation of their too 
eredulous followers : an ample proof of which will be afforded ixa 
the circumstance under examination. 

While treating of this subject, we must trespass on the patience 
of the reader, by the introduction of the following dissertation, ex- 
tracted from the writings of that ingenious philologer, Home 
Tooke, on this word and its application : a treat, to which, we pre- 
sume to hope, he will not be averse ; especially, when informed^ 
that the subject was undertaken partly to refute the opinion ad- 
vanced by Harris in his " Hermes," on that subject. When two 
champions, of such acknowledged literary prowess, enter the lists r 
as antagonists, in order to determine and establish the signification 
of a solitary word r surely the contest is not unworthy of the curious 
spectators notice. 

As a prefatory introduction to the origin of the sentence which 
occasioned the discussion must not only be unnecessary, but unen- 
tertaining, we shall waive further observations, so as to facilitate 
the object of the reader's inquiry, 

The sentence was thus constructed : — " She knowing that 
Crooke had been indicted for forgery, did so and so." 

Home Tooke proceeds : — " Crooke had been indicted for for- 
gery : (there is the averment literally made) She knowing that, did 
so and so." 

. " This is, in all cases, the unsuspected construction r not only in 
our own language,, but in every language in the world, where the 
supposed conjunction that or some equivalent word is employed. 
I speak it confidently (and with Lord Monboddo's permission 
a priori) because I know that it must be so: and, I have likewise 
tried it in a variety of languages, ancient and modern, — Asiatick 
and European. I am well aware, that should I stop here, what I 
have now advanced would seem very puerile, and a mere quibbling 
trick or play upon words, founded upon the fortuitous similarity 
of sound between that the article or pronoun, and that the conjunc- 
tion, as it is called : between which two, though they have the same 
sound, it is universally imagined, that there is not any, the small- 
est correspondence or similarity of signification. But, I deny, that 
any words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong 
sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another^ from 



ETYMOLOGY. §9 

the different manner of using them.* I never could perceive any 
such fluctuation in any word whatever; though I know that it is a 
general charge brought erroneously against words of almost every 
denomination ; but, it is all error, arising from the false measure 
which has been taken of almost every sort of words, whilst the 
words themselves continue faithfully and steadily attached, each to 
the standard under which it was originally enlisted ; as the word 
that does ; which, however named and classed, and however used 
and employed, always retains one and the same signification:" 
(i, e, referring to its noun and pointing it out.) " No authority can 
justify the propriety of using a word in different senses." 

To illustrate these observations, and to show the justness of his 
position, (that the particle that is no conjunction) he presents the 
following explanation : — 

« Example — ' I wish you to believe that I would not wilfully 
hurt a fly.' 

" Resolution — { I would not wilfully hurt a fly ; I wish you to 
believe that (assertion.') 

"Example — 'Thieves rise by night that they may cut men's 
throats.' 

" Resolution — ' Thieves may cut men's throats; for that (pur- 
pose) they rise by night.' " 

Tooke has here given the best mode of investigating the struc- 
ture of a sentence in order to discover the grammatical import of 
a word which, in certain positions, maintains a doubtful applica- 
tion; namely, that of transposing its original members. After this 
manner may every sentence which includes the supposed conjunc- 
tion {that) be treated ; and thus will Mr. Murray's theory decline 
more speedily than it was propagated. 

Murray's example — "Take care that every day be well em- 
ployed." 

Resolution — " Every day should be well employed; take care 
of that (circumstance.") 



* Tooke has erred on this point. Words do change their Datures, when 
they are differently used and applied. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Example — ° I hope he will believe that I have not acted im- 
properly. " 

Resolution — "I have not acted improperly: I hope he will 
believe that (assertion.") 

The word this, with an exception not pertinent here, is admitted 
to be equivalent to the word that; and, we feel justly persuaded, 
that its introduction among such phrases as the foregoing would 
produce no difference in the sense, were the custom adopted 
Thus, we may justifiably write, — " I wish you to believe fads, — I 
would not wilfully hurt a fly:" " I hope he will believe this, — I 
have not acted improperly:" and yet, no grammarian has attribu- 
ted to it the quality of a conjunction. 

After what has been advanced, should further doubt b3 enter- 
tained of the propriety of the preceding theory, the ensuing expli- 
cation will, we anticipate, be considered satisfactory and conclu- 
sive: — Take Mr. Murray's example, — " I hope he will believe 
that I have not acted improperly :" Now, every active veib mist 
govern an objective case, expressed or understood. {See Syntax of 
Verbs, Ride II) "Believe" is, here, an active verb, and governs the 
word assertion, which is understood to follow that: while, accord- 
ingly to Murray's theory, this verb has no object. This evidence 
is decisive. 

Note. — When the word thai, in all similar instances, whether 
expressed or implied, is not preceded by an active verb, a preposi- 
tion must be supposed to accompany it ; as, " I am informed, thai 
he went to London;" "When we reflect, that all power is on 
high:" that is, "I am informed of thai, — he went to London;" 
li When we reflect on that, — all power is on high." Thus exem- 
plified : " He went to London, — I am informed of thai (circum- 
stance, transaction, or occurrence,") &c. 



Of Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns are so denominated, because 
they partake of the nature and perform the offices of pro- 
nouns and adjectives. They are divided into four class- 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

cs: namely, Possessive, Demonstrative, Di , and 

P finite. 

1. The Possessive are those which imply possession 
or property in those nouns to which they relate: as. 
'• This is my book;" " That is your friend." 

In English, there are seven of them: his, her, 

our, your, their. 

Although these are the possessive forms of the personal pro- 
nouns, yet they are aptly denominated possessive adjective 
nouns, because they perform the offices of adjectives, in poia 

runs. 

The word own denotes emphatical possession, and is generally 
joined to one of the foregoing adjective pronouns; as, 
book."' in contradistinction to the book of another. 

The word self, and its plural selves, must be considered no 
as they occupy the places of nouns, and stand for the names of 
them. They are usually linked to a pronoun in the possessive or 
objective case ; as, : mselves. These two 

latter words are not. as Mr. Murray imagines, confined to the 
; case instead of Ms-self, their --selves, except, as Doctor 
Lowth properly observes, ; - by corruption.'' Doubtlessly, such a 
f them as, "He, himself, did it: ; ' or. " They, themselves, per- 
formed it:'"-' is a gross perversion of phraseology, and deserves to 
be exploded, as a solecism, alike irreconcilable to analog}' or good 
grammar. In these instances, though the imgoverned pronouns 

with which these words are blended, are imprc 
made to assume the objective state, nevertheless, why ch 
character and regimen, whilst their forms and identity are re 

1; and pronounce them nc \ merely because the] 

joined to the nouns self end selves ! Further, — no pre I ~ 
pears, that in the sentence, i: I gave it to where this 

properly compounded word is in the obj. 
preserve and maintain the same form in the nominative. 
Syntax of Pronouns. Note 1. Paile I. 

The adjc 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

admit the possessive sign attached to them ; as, " This is some oneh 
book;" "That was the other's fault;" " Scorn to seek another's 
fame." The two first have pluials: witness the word ones in the 
foregoing description. " Others feel as well as we." 

2. The Demonstrative Pronouns are those which 
immediately precede and point out the nouns or subjects 
to which they refer : they are this, and that, with their 
plurals these, and those; as, " This is my friend;" " That 
book has more leaves than this." 

In the first of these examples, we perceive, that although other 
words apparently intervene, so as to destroy the immediate con- 
nection of the demonstrative and its dependent norm, no real sepa- 
ration occurs. The sentence is elliptical, and therefore gives rise 
to a supposed deviation from the import of the definition ; but,, 
when supplied, will be found perfectly conformable to the pre- 
scribed position: thus, " This (friend) is my particular friend." 

The demonstratives are useful in preventing tautology, — the 
word this referring to the nearest or last mentioned subject ; the 
word that to a more remote or former one ; as, " There is a natu- 
ral light in the understanding of man, that never deceives him ; 
but then, there is a prejudice that always does : were he exempt 
from this, (prejudice) he would seldom be in the wrong : were he- 
divested of that, (natural light) he would never be in the right." 

•The words former and latter are nearly of the same import as 
the words that and this; and serve equally to express words or 
subjects in a previous part of the sentence; as, "John and James 
were favorites ; —the former, for his sincerity, — the latter, for his 
modesty." 

3. The Distributive are those which separately denote 
the members or things, which, if collectively considered, 
would form a number. They are each, every, either, and 
neither; as, "Each of my friends enjoys health;" "Every 
man loves liberty;" "Either John or James deserves 
applause;" "Neither of them was blameable." 



ETYMOLOGY. bb 

The word Each is applied to every one of any number which ex- 
ceeds unity. 

Every signifies all the objects of which we treat, separately 
considered. An example will best show their uses and appli- 
cations : — The phrases all men and every man, impart the 
same idea ; yet, in a grammatical sense, they are very different : 
the former denotes the whole of mankind, collectively considered ; 
the latter, the whole of mankind, separately considered. 

Either is used to particularize the one, or the other of two objects ; 
and should never be employed for the distinction of more. We 
properly say, i: I will not protect either of the two ; but, we can- 
not grammatically say, " either of the three" 

The word Neither means the contrary of either ; and is conse- 
quently applied to one or the other of two things only ; as, ll Neither 
of the two came." 

4. The Indefinite are those which do not particularize 
or define the objects to which they refer. They are some, 
one, other, any, all, such, several, many. 

The word one, when joined to a noun, forms an exception to 
this assertion ; as, " one book." Here, it is definite : but, in the 
phrase, ii One is inclined to favor his friend," it is indefinite, being 
applied to no particular individual, but used in a general and un- 
limited manner. 

The expressions, " the one" and " the other" sometimes prevent 
a repetition of nouns ; as, " James and William invited me ; — 
the one (James) to dine, — the other (William) to sup." 

The pronoun adjective other does not vary its form when joined 
to plural nouns ; as, " The other book" — " The other books .-" except 
when employed without its noun ; as, *' c He loves the virtuous, but 
despises all others." 

All may be denominated, a collective indefinite adjective pronoun. 

None, which is a contraction of no one, or not one, is now used 
contrary to its original import, being employed in a plural, as well 
as in a singular construction: Thus, Atterbury : — "None so 
miserably mistake as the self confident." " None he describes was 
capable of a nobler employment." Johnson. Rambler. No. 177. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Etymology of Verbs. 

A Verb expresses the action, the suffering or endu- 
ring, or, the existence or condition of a noun ; as, " John 
loves ;" " He is loved ;" " He lives.' 7 

A verb may generally be known by its implying action ; by its 
agreement with any of the personal pronouns ; or, by its admitting 
of the particle to before it ; as, " Hove, he walks, they write:" or, 
11 to love, to walk, to write" 

Yerbs are of three kinds: Active, Passive, and 

Neuter. 

An Active Verb attributes action # to an agent ; and con- 
sequently requires an object to receive its action: hence, 
such an object is properly said to be in the objective case : 
as, "John loves James." t 

In this instance, John is the agent, to whom action is ascribed 
through the medium of the verb loves ; and, by which, the action 
attributed to him is conveyed on the object James. But, as in ob- 
scure and complicated sentences, the objective case may not easily 
be discovered, the learner will perceive, that the substitution of a 
personal pronoun will insure a speedy solution : — thus, " John 
loves him" By this means, James is known to be in the objective 
case, because the pronoun which supplies its place is in that case. 

A Passive Verb represents an object, as under a passion 
or suffering ; or, as receiving or enduring an action from 
an agent; as, " James is loved, or being loved by John." f 

Though James is here the object of the action, and in the objec- 
tive case, when the verb is actively employed ; yet, he is in the 

* Either physically or mentally. 



ETYMOLOGY. 05 

nominative case, when the verb is under a passive construction : 
because, in all such instances, the agents and objects exchange 
positions in the sentence. See Syntax of Verbs. Rule II. And also 
Note 3. 

A Verb, absolutely neuter, implies neither action nor 
passion ; but, a state of existence, inaction, or condition ; 
as, " I am, he exists, we live, 7 ' f 

In English, certain neuter verbs which imply action, would, in 
some sense, appear to authorize the propriety of considering them 
active verbs : but, in such instances, the learner will perceive, that 
the action is still confined to the agent, and does not extend to an 
object: hence, those verbs are denominated active intransitives ; 
so as to distinguish them from those which are inaciice ; as, " To 
walk, to run, to fight, to dance, to ride, to leap, to fall, to jump, ■ 
to flee, to sigh, to dream, to speak, to talk," &c. See Syntax of 
Verbs. Rule II. Note 1. 

Numerous verbs admit of an active and neuter signification, ac- 
cordingly to the sense in which they are employed : thus, to decide 
or determine, ■ when it signifies, to fix the event of something doubt- 
ful, is active. When it means, to conclude, to end, cr resolve in 
the mind, it is neuter. To treat, when it means to accommodate 
or entertain, is active ; as, " I treat himP When it signifies to 
deliberate or discourse, it is neuter ; as, " I treat of grammar. 

On the subject of those sorts of verbs, Mr. Murray imagines, 
that he has made a novel discovery : however, we apprehend, of 
so peculiar a nature, as to preclude the generality of our philolo- 
gers from a participation in its utility. He says, — "A neuter 
verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a compound 
active verb. To smile is a verb neuter, and cannot be followed by 
an objective case. We cannot say, ' she smiled him, 1 or, ' he was 
smiled :' but, to smile on, being a compound active verb, we properly 
say, 'she smiled on him; 7 l he ivas smiled on by fortune in every un- 
dertaking.' " 



These three examples apply to (he present tense construction only. 

6* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the first place, the attention of the learner is drawn towards 
this theory, in order, that by its exposure, he may not be induced 
to receive, as legitimate, a doctrine of so unmeaning a character. 
In the operative employment (if so we may express ourselves) of 
all such sentences, the government is confined to the prepositions. 
In the phrases, " She smiled on him ;" " I rode on him ;" " He spoke 
to her ;" " We laughed at them;" the verbs are unquestionably 
neuter; and cannot, therefore, participate in the government of 
the pronouns. In the next place, we advert to the words of Mr. 
Murray, in this instance, for the purpose of exhibiting the impro- 
priety of the phrase, " He was smiled on by fortune in every un- 
dertaking," which he admits to be properly expressed. 

A more cogent proof of the impropriety of this mode of phraseol- 
ogy needs not to be introduced, than the following laconick one ; — 
A neuter verb can, in no case, perform the office of a passive verb. 
However, as a more satisfactory explication may be necessary for 
the hitherto misguided learner, we shall, for the present, merely re- 
mark, that transposition, which is undoubtedly the best clew to dis- 
cover the latent construction of a sentence, will infallibly support 
our position. Thus, — " By fortune, he was smiled on, in every un- 
dertaking." Hence arises the question, — On what object was he 
smiled? To this query, no decisive or satisfactory answer can be 
returned : as this, so denominated, but miscalled, compound active 
verb, governs neither noun nor pronoun in the sentence. And 
here, we must observe, that in every sentence in which a verb is 
properly employed in a passive sense, (not form) we justly, nay, 
unavoidably conclude, that the action which is involved, and ne- 
cessarily implied, in the use of that verb, must be conveyed on 
some object, by the agent of that action; which evidently is net the 
case here, as does appear by transposition of the sentence. See 
also Syntax of Verbs, Rule II, Notes 1, 3 and 4, and the subordi- 
nate remarks. 

Note : — In the phrases, cast up, break down, bring forth, wind 
up, take in, &c, the words up, down, forth, and in. are adverbs. 

English Verbs are divided into three classes : Regu- 
lar, Irregular, and Defective. 

In English, many verbs do not serve to express the 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

attributes ascribed to the agents to which they are con- 
nected ; but are employed as assistants towards the con- 
jugation of other verbs : hence, they are called auxiliary 
verbs. They are, do, be, have, shall, will, * may, can, 
and sometimes must and ought ; with the variations com- 
mon to each, in the different tenses or times. 

Of these auxiliaries, a critical description may, without disad- 
vantage, be deferred, until we shall have treated of the different 
inflections of a principal verb throughout its conjugation in the 
tenses ; at which time, the student will be better prepared for such 
information. 

To English Verbs belong three properties : Mood or 
Mode, Tense, and Conjugation. 

Perhaps we are here hazarding a precarious position, by ex- 
cluding number and person as properties of the verb ; and, as some 
may imagine, pertinaciously opposing the opinions of all writers 
who have previously treated of this subject. However, just and 
defensible theory is not less valuable or important because of re- 
cent acquirement. The most superficial reader must perceive, that 
the verb, in its simple form, denotes but a certain quality or attribute 
with which it is invested. Thus, in the phrase, " The light shines,' ' 
we perceive, that shining is the attribute ascribed to the light ; that 
the present tense or time is that in which the light shines ; and, 
that number and person are wholly excluded from such an attri- 
bute, even in imagination. Let us suppose the query to be made, 
— "Of what number is the verb shine, learn, or love?" Those 
who advocate the practice of all the theories hitherto in general 
use, will unhesitatingly answer. — " Of the plural number." To 
such respondents, we would, with deference, take leave to observe, 
that their judgments, on this point, seem to be influenced by a 
signal want of maturity. 

In order to elucidate this subject, we shall introduce Mr. Mur- 
ray^ first rule of syntax, as the leading principle on which it is 

* Will is also a regular verb ; as, " I willed it to him." 



08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

founded : — "A verb must agree with its nominative case, in num- 
ber and person; as, 'I learn;' ' Thou art improved;' ' The birds 
sing.'" Now, is the circumstance not evident, — if learn be the 
plural form of the verb, that Mr. Murray's rule not only over- 
throws its own import, but determines the verb, in this state, to be 
both singular and plural) as it agrees equally with a pronoun in 
the singular or plural number; as, "I learn, — We learn" That 
which is usually denominated the plural form of the verb, is pro- 
duced by removing 5 from the singular; as, "He learns, — We or 
they learn ;" so that if " a verb must agree with its nominative case, 
in number and person," so as to constitute good grammar, an un- 
deniable inference must follow ; namely, that "fleam" is bad gram- 
mar, because the nominative and the verb are of different num- 
bers — the former singular, the latter plural — and of undefined 
person, as its conjugation evinces. 

Mr. Murray grants, that, "in philosophical strictness, both 
number and person might (say, may) be excluded from every 
verb, as they are, in fact, the properties of substantives, not a part 
of the essence of the verb. But, with respect to these points, the , 
practice of our grammarians is, so uniformly fixed, and so analo- 
gous to the languages, ancient and modern, which our youth have 
to study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation 
to deviate from the established terms and arrangements." 

Thus concludes Mr. Murray's apology for the appropriation of 
number and person as properties of verbs ; from which, if any in- 
, ference may be drawn, it is as follows : — "In philosophical strict- 
ness," and consequently in truth, number and person are not prop- 
erties of English verbs ; but some grammarians have made them 
so, and thus adopted a palpable error : therefore, the destruction of 
an acknowledged error "would be an unwarrantable degree of 
innovation." This, we apprehend, is but a just conclusion from 
the foregoing premises, which virtually contend for the propriety 
of retaining youth in ignorance and error. 

In truth, number and person are not properties of verbs. The 
noun or pronoun, to which the verb is connected, is that which al- 
ways determines what is erroneously termed the number and per- 
son of the verb : hence, the number or person of a verb, in what 
shape soever it may exist, or be expressed, cannot be decided, even 
by those who contend for such properties, until the verb is joined 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

to a noun or pronoun of a singular or plural construction. By an 
idiom of our language, verbs are made to vary their terminations, 
so as to express their agreement and connection with nouns and 
pronouns of different numbers, persons, and constructions : — the 
first person and singular number of a pronoun requiring the verb 
in the same form as when joined to a plural one, as the following 
exhibition determines : — 

Verbs thus agree with Personal Pronouns, which are 
three in each number : — 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person, I — learn. We — learn. 

Second. Thou — learnest. Ye or you — learn. 

Third. He, she, or it, — > They — learn. 

learneth or learns. S 



Of the Moods or Modes of Verbs. 

Mood or Mode is the form or manner which a verb 
assumes, when it exhibits the action, passion, or state of 
existence in which a person or thing is situated. 

Mood or mode, considered in a grammatical sense, being chiefly 
employed to denote our various manners or forms of expression, 
we necessarily require as many of them as there are methods of 
communicating our sentiments : hence, some grammarians have 
enumerated twelve moods. However, the following will perhaps 
suit every construction to which our language is disposed; as prob- 
ably no form of expression can be introduced that will not, on due 
examination, be found to rank under the description afforded in the 
following enunciation. 

To Verbs belong six Moods: the Infinitive, the In- 
dicative or Declarative, the Subjunctive, the Po- 
tential, the Interrogative, and the Imperative. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Infinitive Mood* exhibits the verb in its primi- 
tive form, without reference to an agent. It is so denomi- 
nated from the extent of its application ; as, to move, to 
eat, to live, to sleep. 

The Indicative or Declarative Mood asserts or de- 
clares; as, "John loves Thomas;" " William is greeted 
by Henry." 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a circumstance under 
a doubt, condition, or supposition; and is generally used 
with a conjunction, expressed or understood, and neces- 
sarily attended by another verb, so as to express the as- 
sertion implied in the condition; as, "If I sin against 
God, I must bear his wrath;" "Were he the favorite of 
heaven, he would be happy;" that is, "If he were the 
favorite." 

The Potential Mood denotes possibility or liberty, the 
power of acting or willing; as, "I may ride;" "I can 
walk." It also implies the propriety of a performance; 
as, " Every man should love his neighbor." 

The Interrogative Mood is employed in asking ques- 
tions; as, "Who do men say that I am?" "Where is 
my book?" "Does he love learning?" "Am I being 
instructed?" 

The Imperative Mood is employed to command, en- 
treat, consult, exhort, petition, or permit ; as, " Depart ye 
wicked;" " Give heed to the lessons of wisdom;" "Go 
thy way, and sin no more." 

* The infinitive mood is formed by placing the particle to before the verb. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 



Observations on the Moods. 

The Infinitive Mood, as has been observed, is the primitive form 
of the verb, and is seldom employed in referring to particulars, 
For example : — "To eat is necessary ; but, to fast occasionally is 
proper." In this sentence, the verbs to eat and to fast have no 
definite reference to the act of a particular individual j neither are 
they, in general, connected with one, so as to confine the actions 
introduced to one person: hence, from their indefinite nature, 
grammarians have properly denominated such verbs infinitives, 
We may farther observe, that, although the attributive quality of 
verbs constitutes a main part of their essence, yet we perceive that 
infinitives disclaim attribution for want of definite objects on which 
they may act; and, in those cases, assume the nature of substantives, 
and are distinguished with the several attributes peculiar thereto, 

Thus, in the above illustrations, necessity is the attribute ascribed 
to the infinitive verb to eat, and propriety the attribute ascribed to 
the verb to fast. Here, we observe the attributive quality of the 
verb wholly lost, while it assumes the substance of a noun, and re- 
quires the attendance of an attribute to denote its agency in the 
same manner as the nominative of any other sentence. For ex- 
ample : — "To eat is necessary." What is necessary % " To eat." 
Here, the infinitive performs the part of a substantive, by becoming 
the nominative to an attribute. It also becomes an objective case ; 
as, "I mean to eat." 

The Indicative or Declarative Mood is so called, because it indi ] 
cates or declares that a circumstance is, or, is not ; was, or, was not ; 
will, or, will not be. This mood, with the exception of contingency, 
makes a near approach to the nature of the Potential and Subjunc- 
tive Moods ; as when we use an expression which implies possi- 
bility or contingency. Instance: — In the sentence, "John will 
meet me, that we may arrange our affairs," the meeting is positively 
asserted as an action that will occur ; but, the arrangement of the 
affairs is a circumstance of uncertainty, as being expressed by the 
potential mood. And, though my intention of arranging our af- 
fairs, in consequence of the meeting, be ever so fully determined, 
yet must that act be wrapped in doubt, because I remain unin- 
formed as to the accomplishment of its execution. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These observations will also serve as ah induction to the pecu- 
liarities of the Subjunctive Mood, which indeed is nearly allied to 
the Potential, both being expressive of a circumstance under a 
doubt, as will be perceived by the exhibition of the foregoing sen- 
tence in a subjunctive form: — " If John will meet me, we will 
arrange our affairs." Here, the arrangement is positively affirmed : 
but, conditionally; that is, "If John will meet me." Thus, we per- 
ceive the intimate connection of those moods, and their dependence 
on each other. 

A close union is also observable between the Subjunctive and 
Potential Moods, in the verb, when joined to the third person sin- 
gular of the personal pronouns; as, " If he be;" that is, "If he 
may be :" or, " If he should be." Such remarks as may be neces- 
sary, on the Interrogative and Imperative Moods, will be found 
under the conjugation of the verbs throughout those moods. 



Of Tenses. 

Tense is a term usually employed to denote time. It 
is divided into three main parts ; namely, Present, Passed, 
and Future ; as represented in the actions thus successively 
described, — "I smite, or, do smite ;" (now) " I smote, or, 
did smite;' 5 (before now) " I shall, or, will smite ;" (here- 
after.) But, in consequence of the frequent and unavoidable 
occurrence of different forms of the verb from those above 
exhibited, a further division of time appears necessary to 
mark those variations; the entire of which may be thus 
exemplified: the Present, the Passed, the Perfect, the 
Pluperfect, and, the first and second Fuiffre Tenses. 

Before we proceed to a description of the various and particular 
tenses, we shall present to the reader's notice the opinion of Harris, 
in his " Hermes," on the subject of time; in which will be found 
a curious, though inconclusive display of criticism. 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

n Time and space/' says Harris, " have this in common, that 
they are both of them, by nature, things continuous ; and, as such, 
ihey both imply extension. Thus, between London and Salisbury, 
there is the extension of space, and between yesterday and to- 
morrow the extension of time ; but, in this, they differ, that all the 
parts of space exist at once and together, while those of time exist 
only in transition or succession. Hence, we may gain some idea 
of time, by considering it under the notion of a transient continuity. 
Hence, also, as far as the affections and properties of transition 
go, time is different from space ; but, as to those of extension and 
continuity — they perfectly coincide. Let us take, for example, 
such a part of space as a line. In every given line, we may assume 
any where a point, and therefore, in every given line, there may be 
assumed an infinite number of points. So, in every given time, 
we may assume any where a now or an instant ; and, therefore, in 
every given time, there may be assumed infinite nows or instants." 

We shall not quote Mr. Harris further, without noticing the 
error involved in the above theory ; for, though geometrical prin- 
ciples will allow, that an infinite number of points, as imaginative 
particles (destitute* of parts or magnitude) may be assumed within 
a certain space or line, yet the inference does not legitimately fol- 
low, that infinite nows or instants can be contained within a given 
or limited portion of time, until the proposition be first proved, 
that a now or an instant occupies no time, which we consider im- 
possible ; as also, that it has no part in any given period of time ; 
of which, more hereafter. 

" Further still — A 'point is the bound of every finite line, and a 
now or instant of every finite time. But, although they are bounds, 
they are neither of them parts : neither the point of any line, nor 
the now or instant of any time. If this appear strange, we may 
remember, that the parts of any thing extended, are necessarily 
extended also ; it being essential to their character that they should 
measure their whole. But, if a point or now were extended, each of 
them would contain within its self infinite other points, and infinite 
other nows, (for these may be assumed infinitely within the minutest 
extension) and this, it is evident, would be absurd and impossible."' 

From what Mr. Harris has yet advanced, we clearly perceive, 
that his object is, to accomplish his point, by considering a now and 
an instant as synonymous, in this respect ; and thus to confound 
7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

both terms. This, however, is a correspondence of signification 
and identity which must be totally rejected in the present instance ; 
and, while we are perfectly disposed to admit his theory concerning 
an instant, as the bound of every finite time, we are wholly hostile 
to that part of the tenor of his position, which places a now in the 
same condition. Because a now is that which marks or delineates 
present time only ; whereas, an instant may be the bound of present, 
passed, or future time. 

That Mr. Harris should appear conscious of the startling bur- 
den which his thesis involves, relative to the now or instant, is (to 
us) matter of trivial surprise; when he says, — "If this appear 
strange," that is, "although they are bounds of time, they are 
neither of them parts of time." Granting, for the cause of argu- 
ment, though utterly denying this visionary theory, it will imply 
a positive contravention to the import of his previous position ; 
namely, that " in any given time, we may any where assume a 
now or an instant :" for, if in any given time, we may assume an 
instant, or, in a certain time, as before stated, we may assume a 
now, we say, — that now or instant, though, in imagination, ever 
so minute, is capable of measuring its whole ; that is, of measuring 
the whole time of which it is a part ; otherwise, we could have no 
such thing in existence or reality, as a now or an instant. Had 
eternity been introduced, his assertion (unconnected with his 
theory) would, in part, obtain ; because any portions of time, be 
they spacious or minute, are incapable of measuring eternity or 
that which has no bounds. 

Our author proceeds, — " These assertions therefore being ad- 
mitted, and both points and nows being taken as bounds, but not as 
parts, it will follow, that in the same manner, as the same point 
may be the end of one line, and the beginning of another, so the 
same now or instant may be the end of one time and the beginning 
of another. Let us take for example the lines A B, B C. 

B 




ETYMOLOGY. 75 

" I say, that the point B is the end of the line A B, and the be- 
ginning of the line B C. In the same manner, let its suppose 
A B, B C, to represent certain times, and let B, be a now or an 
instant. In such case, I say, that the instant B, is the end of the 
time A B, and the beginning of the time B C. I say likewise of 
these two times, that with respect to the now or instant which they 
include, the first of them is necessarily passed time, as being pre- 
vious to it; the other future, as being subsequent to it. As, there- 
fore, every now or instant always exists in time, and without being 
time, is time's bound, — the bound of completion to the passed, and 
the bound of commencement to the future ; hence, we may con- 
ceive its nature or end, which is to be the medium of continuity 
between the passed and future, so as to render time, through all its 
parts, one entire and perfect whole." 

Again, we must digress from the quotation, to correct what we 
conceive to be an erroneous opinion of Mr. Harris's : — cc As, there- 
fore, every now or instant always exists in time, and without being 
time, is time's bound." 

The reader will recollect, that Mr. Harris commences his ob- 
servations, on this subject, with the introduction of " a given," or 
limited portion of space or time. He will also recollect, that our 
author admits " a now, or an instant" to be assumed any where, 
within a given time. How, therefore, we demand, can a noio or 
an instant (which, in reality, does exist) be contained within a 
given time, if not apart of that time; and, as a part of that time, 
it not only exists in time, but is time its self: and, however finite 
or subtile it may be, will, by the connection and accumulation of 
many such parts, measure the whole of any duration that is not 
infinite. In fine, our opinion is, that with as much good sense 
may we expect proselytes to the thesis, — Every particle of matter 
exists in matter, without being matter, as Mr. Harris might have 
expected to the position, " every nato or instant exists in time, with- 
out being time." 

Mr. H. ultimately asserts, that " there cannot, strictly speaking, 
be any such thing as time present." 

In pursuing this subject so closely, and opposing so sternly an 
authority which may be supposed efficient to establish much more 
intricate positions on the subject of philology, the author trusts 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that he will not be considered presumptuous. He acknowledges, 
that he does so with deference to the opinion of Harris : however, 
he by no means conceives, that he should be acting with candor or 
prudence were he to yield assent to any authority, how eminent 
and established soever it may be, when his reason dictates contrary 
views of the subject. This, to his censurers, (if such he may un- 
happily create) will, he should hope, constitute a sufficient apology 
for his pertinacity. 

Now, in philosophical strictness, there can be no time but the 
present. The word be, which Mr. Harris has employed on this 
occasion, signifies to exist; and, therefore, if such a thing as present 
time be, it must be allowed to exist ; because it is known only by 
sensation, or present existence therein. Passed time is not present, 
because it is not known by sensation, but, by memory. Nor is future 
time present, because it is not known by sensation, but, by anticipa- 
tion. These things being premised, we say, — Some time is known 
by sensation or present existence ; but, the passed or future , as has 
been proved, is not known by either : therefore, the present only i 
or that which yields sensation, has an existence. Passed time has 
been ; future time may be ; but no time IS but the present. 

In addition to what has been advanced, though, we apprehend, 
as decisive of the tenor of our objection, as it is conclusive of the 
merits of our theory, we shall, through the medium of the annexed 
diagram, ofTer a further illustration : — 




S 

a 

o 



Passed Time which 



m B 

was, — or did exist. a § £ 



g 



r*, 




O 








XI 




& 






R 


CD 


<4J 


a 




h 


^3 


3 

CD 


O 


Efl 


1 


CD 


1 


«H 




PU 





Let us suppose space, as possessing infinite extension, and of 
which the figure C D E exhibits a finite representation, to be oc- 



ETYMOLOGY, 77 

cupied by a conglomerated line, the continuous fluctuation of which 
shall represent eternity, or infinite duration, progressing towards 
the abyss of futurity '. In this line, we shall represent a point A, at 
which, time is ushered into existence, and whence it pursues and 
preserves a collateral and equimotive pace with eternity. We 
shall next suppose time to have arrived at the point B, These posi- 
tions being easily, nay, unavoidably granted, shall we (to the que- 
rist who demands a delineation of the precise distributions of time, 
as above portrayed) say, that any portion between B and its com- 
mencement at A is otherwise than passed time, or what was I or, 
shall we characterize that part to which B has not yet arrived by 
another name than that o£ future, or what may be ! If not, the in- 
ference is unquestionable, that no time is or exists but the present j 
or that which is being exhibited in the continuous approach of the 
line A B, at the point B. 

The Present Tk&se represents an action as occur* 
ring at the time in which it is mentioned ; as, "I write ; 1f 
" He smites ;" " He is being smitten. 11 

This tense is sometimes applied in a manner which appears ex- 
ceptionable to its nature ; as, " Cicero speaks eloquently." But, 
in this instance, we must observe, that the speeches of this person 
are still extant, and remain as living monuments of his fame, 
though the author is not in existence. This mode of expression is 
countenanced by a figure of speech named vision. 

The phrases, "When he comes" "after he arrives? 1 "before he 
goes" " as soon as he thinks" though they refer to future action, 
are properly expressed in this tense. The words when, after, be- 
fore, and the phrase as soon as, impel the mind forward to some 
future determinate time, and represent the agent as acting at that 
particular period. 

The Passed Tense represents an action as having 
occurred at a time prior to that in which it is mentioned ; 
as, " I wrote ;" " He smote ;" " He was smitten 11 It also 
represents an action as occurring at a certain time passed ; 

7* 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, "He was being smitten" &c. See Conjugation of 
Passive Verb; also Syntax of Participles, — Remarks 
on Note 5, Rule I. 

This tense has, by some grammarians, been called the imper- 
fect; but, why it has received this inappropriate designation, is not, 
perhaps, easily reconciled. Doctor Blair, in his ninth lecture on 
rhetorick, observes : " A passed action may be considered as left 
unfinished, which makes the imperfect tense ; as, ' I was writing.' " 

That subjects " may be considered" what they frequently are not, 
we are perfectly prepared to admit : nor, indeed, does the Doctor, 
in this instance, appear to have determined otherwise. Evidently, 
in the sentence, " I was writing," what part soever of that operation 
had been performed previously to the recital of the action, was not 
an imperfect act, but one, so far, wholly completed and perfected ; 
and, that part which remained unfinished, or not yet performed, — a 
future action, or one which must be supposed (if hereafter to be 
executed) to occur at a time subsequent to the present. In truth, 
if any action could receive the appellation of an imperfect one, it 
would be that which was to have been perfected within a limited 
portion of time ; part being performed, and part not, but still, in a 
state of active operation. 

The Perfect Tense is another form of the Passed, 
and is invariably employed to denote an action which has 
occurred within a time connected with the present ; as, 
" I have written my letter;" " He has performed his task." 

The perfect, as well as the passed tense, represents an action as 
completed and perfected; with this difference, — that the former is 
expressive of action performed within a division of time which is 
not wholly passed ; whilst the latter denotes the action and time in 
which it was performed to be completely passed, at a certain time 
passed. Thus, in speaking of an action in the year, month, or day, 
in which it occurred, we employ the perfect tense, and say, " He 
has been studious this year, month, or day :" but, with no propriety 
can we say, " He was studious this year, month, or day, because a 
portion of the year, month, or day, to which we refer, is yet to be 
fulfilled. For a similar reason, we should not employ the perfect 



ETYMOLOGY, 79 

tense where the passed only would be applicable. Therefore, we 
improperly say, " He has been studious last year, month, or day," 
because the action in those cases is long passed, together with the 
time in which it was performed. We should say, " He teas studi- 
ous last year, month, or day." 

The passed tense is sometimes employed in treating of an action 
which has occurred within a portion of the time in which it is 
mentioned; as, " He wrote his letter this morning" But here, we 
perceive, that though the day in which the action is said to have 
occurred is not wholly passed, yet, as the morning is a particular 
and distinct portion of the day, and already passed, it is properly 
considered passed time, and treated as such. 

The Pluperfect or Completive Passed Tense 
represents an action as having occurred at a time previ- 
ous to another point of passed time expressed in the sen- 
tence; as, "I had received your commands before the 
period of his departure." 

Here, the departure is noted, as a circumstance which did occur \ 
but, not till my reception of the commands, which must have been 
prior to the point of time in which the departure took place ; other- 
wise, it could not have been stated. 

The First Future Tense intimates, that an action 
will occur at some indefinite future time; as, "I will 
write a letter:" "He shall see his friend;" " They will 
meet to-morrow." 

The Second Future Tense intimates, that an action 
tcill have occurred at or before the precise time in which 
another future action will be accomplished ; as, " I shall 
have written a letter before the arrival of the messenger ;" 
" He will have seen his friend at or before the arrival of 
the mail." 

The learner is instructed to observe, that the future tenses of 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

verbs are formed by the introduction of auxiliaries ; — the present 
tense of a verb joined to an auxiliary forming the first future 
tense ; the perfect or passive participle, the second. 

If attentively noticed, the following remarks will be important 
to the student, in facilitating his acquaintance with the conjugation 
of verbs, — an object of peculiar interest : — 

The sign of the present tense, in the indicative mood, is do, or am 
being;* of the passed tense, did, or was; of the perfect, have, or has; 
of the pluperfect, had; of the first future, shall, or will; and of the 
second, shall, or will have. 

This hint will be sufficient to put the learner on inquiry respect- 
ing the sign of each tense throughout the different moods, — infor- 
mation which he cannot fail to acquire by meditation and industry. 



Of the Conjugation of Verbs. 

The Conjugation of a Verb is its different varia- 
tions or inflections throughout the Moods and Tenses. 
The form of conjugation which an Active Verb assumes 
is termed the active voice ; and that of a Passive Verb, 
the 'passive voice. 

As an explanation of the auxiliary verbs, in general use, is 
necessary towards a thorough acquaintance with the principal 
ones, the conjugation of those which follow may be exhibited 
with advantage : — 

The Verb TO DO. 
Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To do. Perfect. To have done. 



* In the active state of a verb we say, " I loVe, or do love. " In the passive 
state we say, " I am being loved." See Conjugation of Verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 



Indicative or Declarative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS. 

1. Person. I — do. I. We — do. 

2. Person. Thou— dost. 2. Ye or you — do 

3. Person. He, she, j>r it — doth or does. 3. They — do, 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I did. 1. We did. 

2. Thou didst. 2. Ye or you did. 

3. He did. 3. They did. 

As an auxiliary, this verb admits of no further conjugatioa 
As a principal one, it does, through all the moods and tenses. 



TO BE. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have been 

Indicative or Declarative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGURAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. He, she, or it, is. 3. They are. 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast. 2. Ye or you were 

3. He was. 3. They were. 



82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Perfect Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He has been. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I had been. 

2. Thou hadst been* 

3. He had been. 



PLURAL. 

1. We have been. 

2. Ye or you have been. 

3. They have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We had been. 

2. Ye or you had been. 

3. They had been. 



First Future Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall or will be. 

£. Thou shalt or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 



PLURAL. 

1. We shall or will be. 

2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. They shall or will be. 



Second Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will have. been. 1. We shall or will have been. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

been. been. 

3. He shall or will have been. 3. They shall or will have been. 



SINGULAR. 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If he be. 



Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. If we be. 

2. If ye or you be. 

3. If they be. 



ETYMOLOGY, 83 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated like the cor- 
respondent tenses of the indicative; with the exception of the 
conjunctive termination, in the second and third persons singular. 



Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can be, 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayest or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be, 

3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might,could,would,0r should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have been. should have been. 

2. Thou mighstjCouldst^vouidst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have been. or should have been. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

t With respect to the tenses and number of them belonging to 
this mood, see page 95, 

The conjugation of a verb throughout the interrogative mood 
is fully explained and laid down en pages 96 and 101, where the 
variations of a principal verb are exhibited. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperative Mood. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Let* me be. 1. Let us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or ,do ye or you be. 

3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 

By the imperative mood, an address is directed to a second per- 
son in the present or future tense. When we say, " Let him," 
or, "Let us," — "Let me," or, "Let them," the meaning is, Do 
thou, or ye let, &c. For this reason, it is destitute of those tenses 
peculiar to moods in general. 

The verb to be, signifies to exist : and has a variety of forms to 
express its manifold applications in grammatical use; as, am, 
was, been, is, wert, were, &c. 

TO HAVE. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To have. Perfect. To have had. 

Indicative or Declarative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hast. 2. Ye or you have. 

3. He has. 3. They have. 



* The verb Let, though apparently employed as such, is never an auxil- 
iary. Like the word if, used in the conjugation of verbs in the subjunctive 
mood, it is, perhaps, the best suited that can be chosen to develope the defec- 
tive conjugation of the imperative mood.', which maybe represented with 
equal effect by the words permit, allow, suffer, &c, were they succeeded by 
the infinitive form ; which, by implication, they involve. " Let me be," is but 
another, and more convenient form of saying, " Permit me to be," &c. We 
must, however, observe, that when, to the word let, as in the phrases, "Let 
us think;" "Let us love;" and all others which imply freedom of volition, 
we annex the idea of permission solely, we attach to them a signification at 
variance with their import. To conceive free agency entreating permission 
for the exercise of its own prerogative, is, to say the least, an inconsistency, 



ETYMOLOGY, 



85 



SINGULAR. 

1. I had. 

2. Thouhadst 

3. He had. 



Passed Tense, 



PLURAL. 

1. We had. 

2. Ye or you had. 

3. They had. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I have had. 

2. Thou hast had. 

3. He has had. 



Perfect Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We have had. 

2. Ye or you have had. 

3. They have had. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I had had. 

2. Thou hadst had. 

3. He had had. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We had had. 

2. Ye or you had had. 

3. They had had. 



First Future Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 

3. He shall or will have. 



PLURAL. 

1. We shall or will have. 

2. Ye or you shall or will have. 

3. They shall or will have. 



Second Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will have had. 1. We shall or will have had. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have had. 2. Ye or you shall or will have had 

3. He shall or will have had. 3. They shall or will have had. 

3 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have. 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he have. 3. If they have. 

To continue this conjugation is unnecessary, as the remaining 
tenses are correspondent to those of the indicative mood : except, 
that the second and third persons singular, in most cases, require 
the conjunctive termination. This mood may be conjugated with 
any of the conjunctions which imply doubt, supposition, or con- 
tingency, as well as with the particle if: but, this being so pecu- 
liarly expressive of condition, or doubt, (the characteristick fea- 
ture of this mood) we could not, probably, adopt a more suitable 
one. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2. Thou mayest or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. X might,could,would,0r should 1. We might, could, would, er 

have had.* should have had. 

2. Thou mightst,couldst,wouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have had. or should have had. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have had. should have had. 



* This is the proper form : — not, " I might have," as represented by Mr. 
Murray. See pages 94 and 95. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



87 



Imperative Mood. 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 

2. Have thou, or do thou have. 2. Have ye or you, or do ye or 

you have. 

3. Let him have. 3. Let them have. 

%jT Most verbs, in their primitive states, are equally expressive 
of present or future time ; the import of the accompanying word 
oi phrase alone, determining to which each belongs: for exam- 
ple, — To HAVE. 

To have — (now) present. 
To have — (hereafter) future. 

SHALL* 

Future Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall. 

2. Thou shalt. 

3. He shall. 



PLURAL. 

1. We shall 

2. Ye or you shall. 

3. They shall. 



Passed Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I should. 

2. Thou shouldst. 

3. He should. 



PLURAL. 

1. We should. 

2. Ye or you should. 

3. They should. 



* The learner will readily excuse the absence of language calculated to 
disabuse him of the too palpable error of appropriating to the auxiliaries 
shall and w£K, a present tense conjugation. Notions, so very peculiar, 
must, without disadvantage, be left to the theory of Mr. Murray and his dis- 
ciples. This note applies also to Will, on succeeding page. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I will. 

2. Thou wilt. 

3. He will. 



1. I would. 

2. Thou wouldst. 

3. He would. 



WILL* 

Future Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We will. 

2. Ye or you will. 

3. They will. 



Passed Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We would. 

2. Ye or you would. 

3. They would. 



1. I may. 

2. Thou mayest. 

3. He may. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I might. 

% Thoumightst. 

3. He might. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I can. 

2. Thou canst. 

3. He can. 



MAY. 

Present Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1. We may. 

2. Ye or you may. 

3. They may. 

Passed Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We might. 

2. Ye or you might. 

3. They might. 



CAN. 
P resent Tense. 



PLURAL. 

1. We can. 

2. Ye or you can. 

3. They can. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 



Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL- 

!, I could. 1. We could. 

2. Thou couldst. 2. Ye br you could, 

3. He could. 3. They could. 

The verbs must, ought ) and quoth, admit of no variations, and 
may be classed among those which do not undergo conjugations 
throughout the moods and tenses. They are commonly called de- 
fective verbs ; as, mo.y, can, shall, will, must, ought, quoth. 

Ought is used, by corruption, for owe, " I ought to write," sig- 
nifies that " I owe the performance of the action of writing;" or, in 
other language, " The performance of the action is due." 



Observations on the Import of the Auxiliary* 
Verbs. 

Bishop Lowth has properly observed, that the verb do, and its 
passed tense did, mark an action with greater force and energy 
than it would otherwise possess ; as, " I do love thee,"— " I did see 
thee," are expressions which convey more force, strength, and dig- 
nity, than " I love thee," — " I saw thee." 

The verb to be, though the chief auxiliary, is, in some cases, a 
principal verb; as, "He is a good man;" "Paul was a zealous 
preacher." 

Have ) as an auxiliary, serves^ in general, to represent previously, 
but, continuously retained action; as, "I have (hitherto) enjoyed 
health ;" " I have (always) loved learning." As a principal, it 
marks actual and present possession; as, " I have my book ;" that 



* Verbs, when exclusively auxiliaries, do not govern cases ; nor do they, 
with the exceptions of be and have, take the infinitive sign before them : We 
cannot say, to may, to can-, to shall, to will, to must, dec-. 

8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is, " I possess my book." Its passed tense intimates former or prior 
possession ; as, " I had my book." 

Shall, in general, denotes obligation or necessity. It always re- 
lates to futurity, and has significations proportionate to its various 
applications. When joined to the first person singular or plural 
of the pronouns, it merely fortels ; as, " J or we shall see you to- 
morrow." In the second and third persons, it denotes obligation 
or compulsion ; as, " Thou shalt, or you shall forfeit your claim ;" 
" He or they shall execute my orders." 

To say, as Mr> Murray does, that " shall, in the second and third 
persons, promises, commands, or threatens," is, we apprehend, the 
result of an opinion induced by too precipitate a judgment. His 
correspondent examples to the several attributes which he enume- 
rates, lie thus in order: — "Thou shalt, or you shall inherit the 
land;" "Ye shall do justice and love mercy;" "They shall ac- 
count for their misconduct." In each of these examples, the prom- 
ise, command, or threat, (if at all implied) is unsuspectedly con- 
fined to the 7^ person, not to the second. The first example is sy- 
nonymous with, — "/promise that thou shalt, or that you shall in- 
herit the land." The second, with, — "/command that ye shall do 
justice." The third, with, — "/ insist or declare that they shall 
account for their misconduct." 

Mr. Murray has introduced an unaccountable variation in the con- 
jugation of verbs, in the second future tense of the indicative mood, 
from that form which he has adopted in the first future ; by not per- 
mitting the word shall to associate with the second and third persons. 
This also appears to be an error : for, as no difference exists between 
the first and second future tenses, except that of the former's point- 
ing out an action at a future indefinite time, and the latter 's point- 
ing, it out at some particular future time, surely this difference, in 
point of time, could not authorize a variation in theory ; particu- 
larly, while such forms exist in practice. For example: — what 
language more grammatical than to say, " Then cometh the end, 
when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God?" And, if the 
language be correct, to say, " Thou shalt or wilt love, at some in- 
definite future time," why not also correct, to say, " Thou shalt or 
wilt have loved, at some particular future time !" 

Will, in the first person singular or plural, denotes resolution 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

or promise; as, "I will shun vice;" " We will seek virtue." In 
the second and third persons, it simply foretels; as, " Thou wilt, 
or you will be merciful ;" n He or they will perform the task." On 
some occasions, the passed tense of this verb denotes futurity. See 
Syntax of Conjunctions. 

The ballad song, " Begone dull care," affords an apt illustration 
of the precise employment of shall and will : — 

My wife shall dance, and J will sing." 

•The substitution of the one for the other would completely sub- 
vert the order and sense intended. See their peculiar applications. 

May expresses possibility or power ; and refers equally to pre- 
sent or future time; as, " I may go;" " He may love ;" (now or 
hereafter.) 

Might, as its passed tense, refers to passed time only : as, "I 
might have walked." 

Can, and its passed tense could, assert power : as, " I can go ;" 
11 1 could have gone." The former denotes present or future time : 
the latter, passed time. 

Must, on all occasions, intimates necessity; as, " I must write." 

Let expresses permission, entreating, exhorting, consulting, or 
commanding: as, " Will you let me move?" a Let me know the 
truth :" " Let us join hands and hearts ;" " Let not your bibles take 
dust ;" " Let there be light." 

Would and should are nearly allied, in some cases : however, 
there appears to be the following distinction and difference : — would 
denotes inclination, — should ) the propriety, as well as the necessity 
of an action. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Of the Conjugation of a Principal Verb, 

All Verbs are Regular or Irregular, 

A Regular Verb is that which has its passed tense and 
perfect participle formed by adding the letter d to the 
present tense of the verb, when it ends in e ; as, move, — 
moved : or, by adding ed, when it does not end in e ; a§, 
walk, — walked. 

* An Irregular Verb is that which has its passed tense 
and perfect participle terminating differently; as, smite, ~— 
smote, — > smitten. 

As a regular verb does not possess that diversity of form to which 
an irregular one is subjected, we shall exhibit the conjugation of 
the latter, as better calculated to assist the learner in discovering 
the varieties or inflections of a verb throughout the tenses. . 

The irregular and active verb To Smite, is thus conjugated : — 



TO SMITE. 

Infinitive Mood, 

Present Tense. To smite. Perfect To have smitten. 

Indicative or Declarative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS- 

LI—- smite, or do smite. I. We — smite, or do smite. 

2. Thou — smitest, or dost smite. 2. Ye or you — smite, or do smite, 

3. He — smites, smiteth, or doth, 3. They — smite, or do smite. 

or does smite. 



% 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

Passed Tense. 

SINGUL k R. PLURAL. 

1. I smote, or did smite. 1. We smote, or did smite. 

2. Thou smotest, or didst smite. 2. Ye or you smote, or did smite. 

3. He smote, or did smite. 3. They smote, or did smite. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have smitten. ' 1. "We have smitten. 

2. Thou hast smitten. 2. Ye or you have smitten. 

3. He has smitten. 3. They have smitten. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had smitten. 1. We had smitten. 

2. Thou hadst smitten. 2. Ye or you had smitten. 

3. He had smitten. 3. They had smitten. 

First Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will smite. 1. We shall or will smite. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt smite. 2. Ye or you shall or will smite. 

3. He shall or will smite. 3. They shall or will smite. 

Second Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will have smitten. 1. We shall or will have smiten. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have smit- 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

ten. smitten. 

3. He shall or will have smitten. 3. They shall or will have smit- 

ten. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I smite. L If we smite. 

2. If thou smite.* 2. If ye or you smite. 

3. If he smite.* 3. If they smite. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated in nearly the 
same manner as the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. 



Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL 

1. I may or can smite. 1. We may or can smite. 

2. Thou mayest or canst smite. 2. Ye or you may or can smite. 

3. He may or can smite. 3. They may or can smite. 

Passed Tense. 



1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have smitten. should have smitten. 

2. Thoumightst,couldst,wouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have smitten. or should have smitten. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have smitten. should have smitten. 



Grammarians of no inconsiderable authority use what is commonly de- 
nominated the conjunctive termination very differently. Some apply it to the 
present tense only; some to the present and passed tenses; some to the 
present and perfect tenses ; and others to all the tenses of the subjunctive 
mood. What might have induced those varied opinions, is not easily conjec- 
tured. However, there appears to be one unquestionable method of deter- 
mining the proper application of this conjunctive termination ; namely, that 
o'f supplying the ellipsis in the subjunctive mood: thus, " If thou tear," sig- 
nifies " If thou shouldst tear." This termination is not preserved when con 
tingency is not implied. See Syntax of Conj unctions. Note 3. 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

ft=pTIie potential mood recognizes no future tenses; as its con- 
duction in the present tense embraces every effect concomitant 
with future time ; as may be perceived by the examples produced: 
" He may or can smite," (now.) "He may or can smite/' {hereafter.) 

Among the many errors into which Mr. Murray, and our gram- 
marians, in general, have fallen, the assigning of perfect and plu- 
perfect tenses to the potential mood is, perhaps, one of the least 
questionable. The words may and can, which out English philo- 
logists have employed to denote the former, refer to present or fu- 
ture action only ; as has been already shown. How, therefore, with 
propriety, can these words be employed to denote a passed action 
also ! An example of the form in which this tense is commonly 
used, will sufficiently illustrate the propriety of the foregoing re- 
mark : — Mr. Murray's example, — "I may ox can ha ve loved." In 
this instance, the words (may and can) which are invariably em- 
ployed to distinguish the present or future tense are commixed with 
those (have loved) which, on all occasions, are employed to de- 
note passed action ; and consequently render the sentence, both in 
meaning and effect, equivalent to the following construction : — *' I 
may or can, now or hereafter, perform the action which I have al- 
ready completed." This would evidently be, to bring passed time 
back, and treat it as present or future ; a circumstance which (if 
proposed) would manifestly be an insult to common sense. Fur- 
ther: — If the simple phrase, " I may have loved" be correct, so 
must its equivalent and accompanying construction, " I can have 
loved;'''' language, we shall humbly hope, too barbarous for imita- 
tion. The former should be, " I might have loved;" the latter, 
" I could have loved" See Syntax of the Verb, Notes 13 and 14. 

To argue, that on the principle here introduced, (that of repu- 
diating the propriety of the combination or commixture of a pres- 
eivt tense auxiliary with a passed principal, so as to form the perfect 
tense) we must resist the adoption of an acknowledged theory, as 
evinced in the perfect tense construction of the indicative mood and 
others, through the medium of the words have smitten, &c, would 
be, to consider those marks or signs of the potential mood, as iden- 
tical with those of the indicative, &c, so widely different in their 
natures. 

From what has been urged, and, we trust, proved, on this sub- 
ject, the learner will, we apprehend, agree with us in viewing fur- 



96 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



ther dissertation on the supposed perfect and pluperfect tenses of 
this mood, as altogether unnecessary. See the observations on the 
Auxiliary Verbs may, can> might, and also have. 



Interrogative Mood. 
Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. Do I smite'? 

2. Dost thou smite ? 

3. Does he smite ? 



SINGULAR. 

1. Did I smite ? 

2. Didst thou smite ? 

3. Did he smite? 



SINGULAR. 

1. Have I smitten? 

2. Hast thou smitten ? 

3. Has he smitten ? 



PLURAL. 

1. Do we smite ? 

2. Do ye or you smite ? 

3. Do they smite ? 

Passed Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1. Did we smite ? 

2. Did ye or you smite ? 

3. Did they smite ? 

Perfect Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1. Have we smitten? 

2. Have ye or you smitten ? 

3. Have they smitten ? 



Pluperfect Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. Had I smitten? 

2. Hadst thou smitten ? 

3. Had he smitten ? 



PLURAL. 

1. Had we smitten? 

2. Had ye or you smitten ? 

3. Had they smitten ? 



First Future Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. Shall I smite? 

2. Wilt thou smite? 

3. Will he smite? 



PLURAL. 

1. Shall we smite? 

2. Will ye or you smite ? 

3. Will they smite ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



97 



Second Future Tense. 



8JN0URAR. 

1. Shall I have smitten 7 

2. Wilt thou have smitten 1 

3. Will he have smitten *? 



PLURAL. 

1. Shall we have smitten? 

2. Will ye or you have smitten 1 

3. Will they have smitten 7 



The auxiliary will, cannot, with propriety, be employed with the 
first person of the pronouns in either the first or second future tense 
of this mood. To do so, if in a plural application of the query, 
would be, to suppose us, who are acknowledged to be free agents, 
to depend on the will or permission of another or otheis for the 
exercise of our own intentions. The sentence interrogatively 
stated, in the form to which allusion is made, would read thus : 
" Will we smite V* or, " Will we have smitten 1" to which, the per- 
son or persons addressed may properly answer, — "I, or we, (as 
the case may require) cannot determine, as we possess neither 
your will nor power." The inference is therefore obvious, that a 
form of questionary phrase which admits not of a direct answer, is 
inadmissible, at least, as philosophick language. 



Imperative Mood. 



SINGULAR. 

1. Let me smite. 

2. Smite thou, or do thou smite. 

3. Let him smite, 



PLURAL, 

1. Let us smite. 

2. Smite ye or you, or do ye or 

you smite. 

3. Let them smite. 



Participles. 



Present. 
Perfect. 
Compounded Perfect. 



Smiting. 
Smitten. 
Having Smitten, 



To consider the participle a distinct part of speech, as some 
grammarians do, or to treat of it as such, is, we conceive, unneces- 
9 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

sary. " I am smiting," is, in every respect, equivalent to, " I 
smite/ 1 or, " I do smite." Therefore, as it not only implies time, 
but also governs the objective case, as absolutely as the verb from 
which it is derived, evidently, it is but another form of the verb, 
and should be explained in conjunction with it. And if, on any 
occasion, the participle is made to deviate from the nature and 
essence of a verb, in consequence of its situation in the sentence, it 
assumes the position of an adjective, and performs its functions. 
Thus, its participation in the properties of different parts of speech 
has procured for it the appropriate title of a participle. For a criti- 
cal definition of this part of speech, and its various uses, see Ety- 
mology of the Participle, in connection with the verb. 

Now, that a minute detail of the conjugation of an active verb 
has been presented throughout its moods and tenses, in which form, 
it appears in what is denominated the active voice, we shall proceed 
to a delineation of the same verb, in the passive voice ; which is 
formed, by attaching the verb to be, through its necessary inflec- 
tions, to a principal verb, in that form which it assumes when a 
perfect or passive participle. 

The irregular and passive verb to be smitten is thus conju- 
gated:— 



TO BE SMITTEN. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To be smitten. Perfect. To have been smitten. 

Indicative or Declarative Mood, 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR PRONOUNS, PLURAL PRONOUNS. 

1. I — am being smitten. 1. We— are being smitten. 

2. Thou—art being smitten. 2. Ye or you— are being smitten. 

3. He — is being smitten, 3. They — are being smitten. 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I was smitten, or being smit- 1. We were smitten, or being 

ten. smitten. 

2. Thou wast smitten, or being 2. Ye or you were smitten, or 

smitten. being smitten. 

3. He was smitten, or being 3. They were smitten, or being 

smitten. smitten. 

That Mr. Murray, and all other grammar writers whom we 
have consulted, have erred in their modes of conjugating these ten- 
ses, in the passive voice, is so evident, as scarcely to need proof. 
The expression, "lam loved" which Mr. M. has employed to ex- 
hibit the passive conjugation of the present tense in this mood, may 
much more feasibly represent passed than present time, as it obvi- 
ously treats of action which has occurred previously to its narra- 
tion, and still retained or endured ; otherwise, it could not be stated 
or expressed. The phrase, " I am smitten, 5, is, in grammatical 
construction, equivalent to, " I am loved." Now, is the circum- 
stance not plain, that how finite or subtile soever the time vjas, be- 
tween my being smitten, and the time in which I mention it, that 
the action is not (as the present tense would imply) occurring ; 
but, has already occurred, and therefore a passed action. Few will 
object to the propriety of the more familiar phraseology, "lam in 
the act, — or, suffering the action of being smitten:" and yet, in 
substance and effect, it is wholly the same as, "lam being smitten"* 
which is the true form of the verb in the present tense of the passive 
voice. See Syntax of the Participle. On the two fold form of the 
passed tense in this mood, consult the definition of the passed tense : 
also, on its practical application, see Syntax of Participle, Note 5; 
and pages 102, 103, and 104. 



* That this form of expression is in more frequent requisition than is gen- 
erally imagined, may be thus perceived. Query, — " For what purpose are 
the soldiers called out?" "For the purpose of being drilled." Under this 
construction, " being drilled," is a substantive phrase. See dissertation oa 
Participle, page 113. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have been smitten. k 1. We have been smitten. 

2. Thou hast been smitten. 2. Ye or you have been smitten, 

3. He has been smitten. 3. They have been smitten. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had been smitten. 1. We had been smitten. 

2. Thou hadst been smitten. 2. Ye or you had been smitten. 

3. He had been smitten. 3. They had been smitten. 

First Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will be smitten. 1. We shall or will be smitten . 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be smitten. 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

smitten. 

3. He shall or will be smitten. 3. They shall or will be smitten. 

Second Future Tense, 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will have been smit- 11 We shall or will have been 

ten. smitten. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

smitten. been smitten. 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have beea 

smitten. smitten. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I am being smitten. 1. If we are being smitten. 

2. If thou art being smitten. 2. If ye or you are being smitten. 

3. If he is being smitten. 3. If they are being smitten. 



ETYMOLOGY. 101 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I were smitten, or being 1. If we were smitten, or being 

smitten. smitten. 

2. If thou wert smitten, or being 2. If ye or you were smitten, or 

smitten. being smitten. 

3. If he were smitten, or being 3. If they were smitten, or being 

smitten. smitten. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I have been smitten. 1. If we have been smitten, 

2. If thou have been smitten. 2. If ye or you have been smitten, 

3. If we have been smitten. 3, If they have been smitten. 

The succeeding tenses of this mood are conjugated in nearly a 
similar manner to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can be smitten. 1. We may or can be smitten. 

2. Thou mayest or canst be smit- 2. Ye or you may or can be smit- 

ten, ten. 

3. He may or can be smitten. 3. They may or can be smitten. 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might, could, would, or I. We might, could, would, or 

should have been smitten. should have been smitten. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been smitten, 

been smitten. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3, They might, could, would, or 

should have been smitten. should have been smitten. 

9* 



10& ENGLISH GRAMMAE 



Interrogative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Am I being smitten 1 1. Are we being smitten"? 

2. Art thou being smitten 1 2. Are ye or you being smitten % 

3. Is he being smitten ? 3. Are they being smitten 1 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Was I smitten, #r being smit- 1. Were we smitten, or being 

ten ? smitten ? 

2. Wast thou smitten, or being 2. Were ye or you smitten, or 

smitten 1 being smitten ? 

3. Was he smitten, or being smit- 3. Were they smitten, or being 

ten? smitten*? 

The forms in which the present and passed tenses are conjuga- 
ted, here, and in the indicative and subjunctive moods, though no- 
vel in their structures, will, on reflection, be found not only cor- 
rect, but perfectly analogous to our dialect. To exemplify this, 
we will suppose a criminal to be enduring the operation of binding 
at the hands of an executioner: — Shall we say, with Mr. Mur- 
ray, — "The criminal is binding?" If so, he must be binding 
something, — a circumstance, in effect, quite opposed to the fact 
presented. Shall we then say, as he does, in the present tense con- 
jugation of his passive verb, — "The criminal is bound?" — 
(equivalent, in construction, to, "He is loved.") If so, the action 
of binding, which we admit to have been begun, but not terminated ; 
and which the criminal is now supposed to be suffering or enduring , 
will, by this expression, be represented as completed and per- 
fected, — a position which the action its self will palpably deny. 
The verbs to make, to bite, to slay^ and to murder, would, in this 
sense, present happy expositions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 103 

Query , — Would not gravity its self be much posed, in an en- 
deavor to preserve its countenance under the comick representation 
of Death's victim relating its own tale 1 Thus — indicative mood, — 
passive voice, present tense, first person, and singular number, — 
" I am murdered," &c; an unavoidable consequence, from Mr. 
Murray's theory. See Syntax of Participle. 

f^T The presentation of this theory, and consequent suppression 
of that hitherto employed, will, we anticipate, immediately incite 
the observant grammarian to the inquiry, — " To what tense do 
the constructions, ' I am pleased ;' ' He is expected :' — ' I am smit- 
ten ;' ' He is bound ;' belong Y* We answer : — So far as these and 
like constrictions are applicable to the delineation of continuous 
and retained, action, they express present time ; and must be treated 
accordingly. 

To render this view familiar, we observe, that while the verbs 
to please, to expect, to love, to esteem, to engage, and numerous others 
of similar tendency, are introduced under the practical forms 
above noticed, they detail action of prior, but retained, endured, and 
continued existence; and therefore, in this sense, belong to the 
present tense. But, constructions which do not involve the pecu- 
liarities noticed, detail passed action only: though expressed under 
these tolerated, but erroneous forms ; and must be so considered. 
Of this class, we have specimens in the phrases, ci It is finished;" 
"He is bound;" " He is slain;" "It is built;" "I am smitten," 
&c. &c. ; because, under these, and all such instances, the actions 
described are neither continuous in their nature, nor progressive in 
their duration ; but, on the contrary, exhibit the operations intro- 
duced, as completed and perfected : and are consequently descriptive 
of passed time and action. In what instance soever this latter form 
and signification can be introduced, their import should be, and, 
indeed, ought to be, supplied by the perfect tense construction: 
being, from their natures, actions capable of being sustained under 
the vague definition of that tense: — for example, — "I am smit- 
ten;" " It is finished;" "He is bound;" "He is slain;" &c, would 
be belter, and more reasonably expressed, by saying, — "I have 
been smitten ;" " It has been finished ;" " He has been bound ;" " He 
has been slain;" &c. |1 

Note.— Should an objector deny the universal applicability 
of our remedy in this case, and adduce, as instances equally 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



obnoxious to ludicrous results, as the proposed and substituted 
constructions, — the phrases, "J have been slain;" "We have 
been murdered;" &c, we reply, — that although these and like 
expressions, (while confined to the first persons) under either 
construction, are equally inappropriate, as to practical address ; 
yet, this objection, limited as it is in the number of its instances, 
does not interfere with the general application of our theory. As 
well may the sophist argue against the fallacy of our system alto- 
gether; because an infant cannot say, " I am being born." Object- 
ors of this class will not, we apprehend, be envied for their talents 
in special pleading. 



Perfect Tense. 



SINGULAR. 



1. Have I been smitten*? 

2. Hast thou been smitten 1 

3. Has he been smitten 1 



1. Have we been smitten % 

2. Have ye or you been smitten % 

3. Have they been smitten 1 



Pluperfect Tense< 



SINGULAR. 



/ 



1. Had I been smitten 1 

2. Hadst thou been smitten 1 

3. Had he been smitten 1 



1. Had we been smitten 1 

2. Had ye or you been smitten *? 

3. Had they been smitten % 



First Future Tense 



L Shall I be smitten 1 
2. Wilt thou be smitten 1 
3* Will he be smitten 1 



1. Shall we be smitten 1 

2. Will ye or you be smitten 1 
3 t Will they be smitten? 



ETYMOLOGY. 105 

Second Future Tense, 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

h Shall I have been smitten 1 1. Shall we have been smitten ! 

2. Wilt thou have been smitten 1 2. Will ye or you have been 

smitten 1 

3. Will he have been smitten ^ 3. Will they have been smitten 1 



Imperative Mood. 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Let me be smitten. 1. Let us be smitten. 

2. Be thou, or do thou be smitten. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye or you 

be smitten. 

3. Let him be smitten. 3. Let them be smitten. 



Participles. 



Present. Being smitten.* 

Perf. Passive. Been smitten. 



Of Irregular Verbs in general, and the modes 
by which they are formed. 

The first and most common irregularity amongst verbs was 
caused by a precipitate pronunciation, by which d was changed to 
t y at the terminations of words ; as, from snatched arose snatcht : 
from passed, past. Words ending in Z, 11, orp, generally have their 



* How strange, that Mr. Murray's admission, with respect to the construe 
tion, being loved, as exhibited in the present tense conjugation of the passive 
participle, should not have superinduced the theory advanced in this work! 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



passed tenses and perfect participles formed by contraction, and 
usually terminate in t ; as, feel, felt ; deal, dealt ; dwell, dwelt ; sleep, 
slept. Verbs which end in y, in their primitive forms, generally 
change y into i, and terminate in ed, in forming the passed tenses ; 
as, cry, cried ; carry, carried. Those which end in t, in the present 
tense, are not subjected to any decisive rule; some being regular , 
some otherwise ; as, burst, bursted ; light, lighted ; fight, fought. 
Words which have their present tenses ending in d, if preceded by 
a diphthong, generally drop the latter vowel, in forming the passed 
tenses ; as, lead, led ; feed, fed ; breed, bred ; except read, spread, 
beat, and probably a few others. Many verbs form their passed 
tenses and perfect participles in en, ght, &c. &c. 

The following is a list of Irregular Verbs : — 



Present. 


Passed. 


Per/, or Passive Part 


Abide, 


Abode, 


Abode. 


Am, 


Was, 


Been. 


Arise, 


Arose, 


Arisen. 


Awake, 


Awoke, R. 


Awaked. 


Become, 


Became, 


Become. 


Befall, 


Befell, 


Befallen. 


Bear, to bring into j 


\ Bare, 


Born. 


existence, ] 


i 




Bear, to carry, 


Bore, 


Borne. 


Beget, 


Begot, 


Begotten. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


Behold, 


Beheld, 


Beholden. 


Bend, 


Bent, R. 


Bent, R. 


Bereave, 


Bereft, R. 


Bereft, R. 


Beat, 


Beat, 


Beaten. 


Beseech, 


Besought, 


Besought. 


Bid, 


Bade, 


Bidden. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


■1( 


Present. 


Passed. 


Per/, or Passive Part, 


Bind, 


Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 


Bit, 


Bitten. 


Bleed, 


Bled, 


Bled. 


Break, 


Broke, 


Broken. 


Breed, 


Bred, 


Bred, 


Bring, 


Brought, 


Brought. 


Buy, 


Bought, 


Bought. 


Catch, 


Caught, R. 


Caught, R, 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave, to cut, 


Clove, 


Cloven. 


Cling, 


Clung, R. 


Clung, R. 


Come, 


Came, 


Come. 


Cut, 


Cut, 


Cut. 


Creep, 


Crept, R. 


Crept, R. 


Crow, 


Crew, R. 


Crowed. 


Do, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 


Drew, 


Drawn. 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk. 


Drive, 


Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell, 


Dwelt, R, 


Dwelt, R, 


Eat, 


Ate, 


Eaten. 


Fall, 


Fall, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 


Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 


Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 


Fought, 


Foughten, 


Find, 


Found, 


Found, 


Flee, 


Fled, 


Fled. 



108 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Passed. 


Per/, or Passive Part 


Fling, 


Flung, R. 


Flung, R. 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown. 


Forbear, 


Forbore, 


Forborne. 


Forbid, 


Forbade, 


Forbidden. 


Forget, 


Forgot, 


Forgotten. 


Forgive, 


Forgave, 


Forgiven. 


Forsake, 


Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 


Froze, R. 


Frozen. 


Get, 


Got, 


Gotten. 


Gild, 


Gilt, R. 


Gilt, R. 


Give, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, 


Graved, 


Graven, R. 


Grind, 


Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, R. 


Grown, R. 


Have, 


Had, 


Had. 


Hear, 


Heard, 


Heard. 


Hide, 


Hid, 


Hidden. 


Hit, 


Hit, 


Hit. 


Hold, 


Held, 


Held. 


Hurt, 


Hurt, R. 


Hurt, R. 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kept. 


Know, 


Knew, 


Known. 


Lay, to lay dourn,. 


Laid, 


Laid. 


Lead, 


Led, 


Led. 


Leave, 


Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Lent. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


10 


Present. 


Passed. 


Per/, or Passive Part. 


Let, 


Let, 


Let. 


Lie, to lie down, 


Lay, 


Lain. 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meant. 


Meet, 


Met, 


Met. 


Overcome, 


Overcame, 


Overcome. 


Overdo, 


Overdid, 


Overdone. 


Overshoot, 


Overshot, 


Overshot. 


Pay, 


Paid, 


Paid. 


Put, 


Put, 


Put, 


Read, 


Read, 


Read. 


Rend, 


Rend, 


Rend. 


Ride, 


Rode, 


Ridden. 


Ring, 


Rang, 


Rung. 


Rise, 


Rose, 


Risen. 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Riven. 


Run, 


Ran, 


Run* 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Sold. 


Send, 


Sent, 


Sent. 


Set, 


Set, 


Set. 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shaken. 


Shear, 


Sheared, 


Shorn 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shed. 



10 



110 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Passed. 


Per/, or Passive Part, 


Show, 


Showed, 


Shown. 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 


Shot. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, 


Shrunk, 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sipg, 


Sang, 


Sung. 


Sink, 


Sank f 


Sunk. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sitten. 


Slay, 


Slew, 


Slain. 


Sleep, 


Slept, 


Slept. 


Slide, 


Slid, 


Slidden. 


Sling, 


Slang, R. 


Slung, R. 


Slit, 


Slit, 


Slit. 


Smite, 


Smote, 


Smitten. 


Speak, 


Spoke, 


Spoken. 


Speed, 


Sped, 


Sped. 


Spend, 


Spent, 


Spent. 


Spin, 


Spun, 


Spun. 


Spit, 


Spat, 


Spitten. 


Spread, 


Spread, 


Spread. 


Stand, 


Stood, 


Stood. 


Steal, 


Stole, 


Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 


Stuck. 


Stink, 


Stunk, 


Stunk. 


Stride, 


Strode, 


Stridden. 


Strike, 


Struck, 


Stricken. 


Strive, 


Strove, 


Striven. 





ETYMOLOGT. 


11 


Present. 


Passed. 


Per/, or Passive Part, 


Swear, 


Swore, 


Sworn. 


Swim, 


Swam, R, 


Swum, R. 


Swing, 


Swang, 


Swung, R. 


Take, 


♦ Took, 


Taken. 


Teach, 


Taught, 


Taught. 


Tear, 


Tore, 


Torn. 


Tell, 


Told, 


Told. 


Think, 


Thought, 


Thought. 


Thrive, 


Throve, 


Thriven. 


Throw, 


Threw, 


Thrown. 


Thrust, 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Tread, 


Trod, 


Trodden. 


Wax, 


Waxed, 


Waxen, R, 


Wear, 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Weave, 


Wove, R. 


Woven, R. 


Win, 


Won, 


Won. 


Wind, 


Wound, 


Wound. 


Wring, 


Wrang, 


Wrung. 


Write, 


Wrote, 


Written. 



The foregoing is, perhaps, a correct list of those verbs which 
are really irregular, or, at least, generally so considered; with 
the exception of those marked R; which are regulars, though 
otherwise used by contraction and custom. 

The participle, as was observed, being a division of the verb, 
remains to be explained in connection with it. This, when per- 
formed, will close the remarks on the etymology of verbs. 



A Participle possesses the nature of a verb, as also 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

that of an adjective ; and frequently governs the noun or 
pronoun to which it refers, in the same manner as the 
verb from which it is derived. Thus, — To choose is an 
active verb ; and, in the phrase, " I choose him" governs 
the objective case. A similar effect will ensue from the 
application of the active participle ; as, " I am choosing 
him," 

In English, there are three sorts of participles: the 
present or active, which is formed by adding the termi- 
nation ing* to the present tense of a verb ; as, from break 
comes breaking : the perfect, or passive, which, in gen- 
eral, is the perfect passed time of the verb from which it 
is produced ; as, formed, bought, torn : and the compound 
perfect; as, having torn. 

The participle, as was said on a former occasion, is so called, 
because it partakes of the properties of different parts of speech : — 
Thus, the word moving, in the ensuing phrase, is an active parti- 
ciple; "lam moving him:" It is an adjective; as, "A moving 
chariot:" and, it is a substantive in the following expressions; in 
each of which, as they appear in succession, it performs the office 
of a nominative and of an objective case: — " Moving is neces- 
sary ;" " He is fond of moving." 

Participles are perfect, when employed in connection with the 
auxiliary verb to have ; as, "I have moved." They are passive , 
when used with the verb to be ; as, " He is moved." 

fjT The verb to be, when joined to an active participle, express- 
es the continuation of the action, without rendering the participle 
passive ; as, "lam moving him." 

The principal variations peculiar to the participle seem to be 
comprised under the following arrangement : — Attribution, time, 



* When the primitive of a verb terminates in e, the e is suppressed in 
orming the active participle ; as, love, loving : except in the verb to be, and 
those ending in ee ; as, be, being ; agree, agreeing ; see, seeing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 1 13 

and assertion, constitute the chief properties of the verb ; whilst 
the participle is confined to the two former: so that if, in practi- 
cal application, we expel the assertion, we destroy the verb, and 
there will remain but attribution and time, which form the essence 
of the participle. Thus, in the sentence, — " Man loves liberty of 
conscience," we perceive, that the verb loves denotes an attribute 
ascribed to man, as the actor : it denotes time, as being expressive 
of present action : and, assertion, as its leading and peculiar prop- 
erty. But, in the phrase, " Man's loving liberty of conscience is 
sometimes the cause of his persecution," we have the true form of 
the participle, devoid of assertion, which constitutes the difference 
between a verb and a participle. 

From what has been advanced, we perceive, that time and at- 
tribution make the essence of the participle ; from which, if we 
remove the time, there will remain attribution : that is, a quality 
attributable to an object which is supposed to retain or possess it ; 
as, " A thinking man;" "A knowing woman:" signifying a per- 
son, not now, nor at any particular time, thinking or knowing, but 
generally possessing the habit. 

Another form of the participle remains here to be noticed : — 
11 Man's having loved liberty," &c. The only difference between 
this and the former expression is, that this denotes passed action : 
the other, present. 

In the following expressions, Mr. Murray has introduced cer- 
tain forms of the participle which prevail in our language : — 
" The chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown." 
11 The words in italicks," says he, "have exactly the same mean- 
ing and construction as, ' The chancellors attachment to the king 
secured his crown.' " " The words being attached," continues he, 
'•'govern the word chancellor's in the possessive case, in the one 
instance, as clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the 
other : and it is (say, they are) only substantives, or words and 
phrases which operate as substantives, that govern the genitive or 
possessive case." So far, the positions of Mr. Murray appear 
unexceptionable in every particular, in which the grammatical 
structures of those sentences are concerned: — but, here follows an 
opinion to which we can by no means assent ; either in theory, as 
it respects the cause of grammar, or in logick, as to the deduc- 
tion : — After stating, — " The following sentence is not precisely 
10* 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the same as the above, either in sense or construction, though ex 
cept the genitive case, the words are the same ; ' The chancellor 
being attached to the king secured his crown,' " he observes, " In 
the former, the words, being attached, form the nominative case to 
the verb, and are stated as the cause of the effect ; in the latter, 
they are not the nominative case, and make only a circumstance 
to chancellor i which is the proper nominative." 

Taking our author on those principles which his doctrine implies, 
namely, that the cause which produces the effect is the nominative, 
he clearly refutes his own theory : for, as we humbly conceive, 
under no circumstance could the chancellor, exclusively, constitute 
the cause of securing the king's crown, did not his attachment ope- 
rate to effect it. The chancellor was merely the instrument or me- 
dium through which the attachment, which alone secured the king's 
crown, was applied. Such a form of expression as, " the chancel- 
lor being attached," &c, does not, in this sense, properly exist in our 
dialect. See theory of the Poss. Case. Syntax of Sub. page 130. 



Etymology of Adverbs. % 

An Adverb is generally employed as an attributive, 
to denote some peculiarity or manner of action, with re- 
spect to the time, place, or order, of the noun or circum- 
stance to which it is connected ; as, " William speaks 
fluently ;" "A very handsome figure;" " A nicely round- 
ed period." 

An adverb may generally be known, by asking the question, 
How? How much? When? or Where? accordingly as the sense 
may require: as in the phrase, "William speaks fluently," — that 
which answers to the question, " How does William speak 1" is the 
adverb fluently. 

Adverbs appear to have been originally constructed, to convey 
to the mind by one word, that idea which otherwise would have 
required two or more : thus, — " William speaks fluently,' 4 signi- 



ETYMOLOGY. 115 

fies, •*- " He speaks in a fluent manner :" very, means — in an emi~ 
'r%ent degree ; and nicely, in a nice manner. 

A few Adverbs admit of comparison ; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest: often, oftener, oftenest: seldom, more seldom, 
most seldom : and perhaps all those ending in ly, as ad- 
verbs of quality; as, swiftly, more swiftly, most swiftly. 

Words which are adverbs, in certain positions, become substan- 
tives, and prepositions in others; the sense alone determining 
which. Thus, the words on, about, above, are adverbs in the fol- 
lowing instances : because they answer to the question where ? "I 
went on ;" " They walked about ;" " He reigns above." In the 
next, they are prepositions, because they govern the objective case ; 
— " The burden lies on him;" " He spoke about me;" " We live 
above them." 

The word much, in the ensuing phrase, is a substantive; — 
" Where much has been attempted, something has been performed." 
It is an adverb; as, " Vital religion is much more valuable than 
riches;" that is, " Vital religion is, in a great or eminent degree, 
more valuable," &c. Indeed, nothing else than close inquiry into 
the sense in which those words are employed will lead to a deci- 
sive knowledge respecting their classifications: however, one 
method may generally be employed with success towards the dis- 
covery, in doubtful cases: — namely, the substitution of another 
word, with the grammatical structure and import of which we are 
thoroughly acquainted. If such a substitute will neither alter the 
sense nor the construction, we may justly conclude, that the sus- 
pected word is of the same part of speech as its substitute. Remem- 
ber this. 

Little else remains to be said on the subject of adverbs, under the 
head of Etymology ; except that they are numerous and variously 
classed. 

Those of Number are, — Once, twice, thrice. 

Of Place, — Here, there, where, hence, whence, thence, herein, 
therein, wherein. 

Of Order, — Firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Of Quantity, — Much, enough, sufficiently, abundantly, &c. 

Of Time Present, — Now. 

Of Time Passed, — Yesterday, already, long since, long ago, &c. 

Of Time Future — To-morrow, hereafter, immediately, instant- 
ly, by and by, &c. 

Of Time Indefinite, — Sometimes, seldom, when, ever, always, 
never, soon, oft, often, when, then, again, daily, weekly, &c. 

Of Affirmation, — Verily, surely, truly, indeed, really, certainly, 
yes, yea, undoubtedly. 

Of Doubt, — Perhaps, possibly, perchance, peradventure, proba- 
bly. 

Of Negation, — No, nay, not. 

Of Interrogation, — How, why, wherefore, whether. 

Of Comparison, — More, most, very, almost, nearly, alike. 

Those of Quality, are very numerous ; and are generally formed 
by adding ly to all adjectives which admit of the termination ; as, 
certain, certainly ; fearful, fearfully. But, when adjectives end in 
y, the y is changed to i, to form the adverbs ; as, pretty, prettily ; 
speedy, speedily. Also, when an adjective terminates in le, the e 
is omitted, in forming the adverb; as, able, ably ; legible, legibly ; 
favorable, favorably. 



Etymology of Prepositions. 

Prepositions preserve a connection between nouns 
and subjects which maintain a natural dependence on 
each other; and govern all nouns and pronouns to which 
they refer; as, " The mind of man is a grand storehouse 
of invention; if it be kept free from tumultuous emotions, 
and brought into exercise with discretion." 

As the main design of this work is to treat of most points whidx 



ETYMOLOGY. 117 

appear practically useful on the subject of English grammar, the 
author consequently here avoids whatever he considers irrelevant 
thereto ; being much more anxious to impart knowledge, than to 
swell his sheets with an unnecessary explanation of words ; as 
grammarians generally do. Therefore, in order to put the student 
in possession of such information as may enable him to employ 
each part of speech with precision, he proposes to notice a few of 
those particles, in the applications of which many respectable au- 
thorities err. 

The prepositions with and by are frequently misapplied for each 
other. Occasionally, they express the connection between some 
instrument or means of effecting a certain end or object ; but, sub- 
ject to the following difference : — the former expresses a more in- 
timate connection ; the latter, a more remote one. Thus, — in the 
sentence, " The lion was hunted with archers, and killed by ar- 
rows," there appears, fc on a careless or hasty inspection, nothing 
grossly objectionable : yet, on more minute examination, we read- 
ily perceive the impropriety. The first clause signifies, that the 
archers were hunted with the lion. It should be, " The lion was 
hunted by archers, and killed with arrows. 

In and of are sometimes misused ; as, " His delight of knowl- 
edge proceeds from his love in improving his mind." This should 
be, " His delight in knowledge proceeds from his love of improving 
his mind." A person may be said to delight in what he has al- 
ready aequired or obtained ; and to manifest his love of what may 
be expected. A similar observation applies to the expressions, 
" Participate in" and, •' Participate of." We participate in the 
formation of the laws, — we participate of their clemency. 

The wor&sbefore and after become adverbs, when they answer to 
the question When ? Employed as prepositions, they refer to place 
or position, and govern the objective case j as, " He went before 
me ;" " We came after them" 

O/has applications widely different from that which it originally 
seems to import. It frequently denotes possession or property, 
and serves to mark the possessive case; as, " The friend of sin- 
ners :" that is, " The sinner's friend." See Syntax of Sub. Note 2. 

Rule I. 

% 

To is improperly used for the particle from; as, " The proposal 



118 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



is very different to that formerly submitted:" "from that formerly 
submitted.' ' We can differ from, but not to. 

The particle a before nouns, in the ensuing constructions, is a 
preposition ; or intended as such, — afoot, ashore, ahead, aground, 
©hunting, amoving, &c. : that is, on foot, on shore, &c. 

To what has been said, we shall subjoin a list of the prep- 
ositions* in general use, which the student may commit to 
memory ; so as to facilitate his acquaintance with them and their 
effects in the government of words ; and in the structure of sen- 
tences ; circumstances with which he cannot fail to become famil- 
iar by application : — 



Of 


within 


at 


unto 


for 


without 


on 


with 


by 


beside 


upon 


to 


near 


about 


through 


between 


in' 


against 


behind 


beneath 


into 


before 


beyond 


below 


over 


after 


among 


above 


under 


besides 


from 


betwixt 



Etymology of Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each 
other, however remotely related ; and may suitably be 
denominated the joints or hinges on which language 
turns ; as, " The lord of the mansion arrived, and found 
none to assist his cause, but a few impotent menials, and 
those defective in courage.' ' 



* The words near, up, down, and off, are improperly classed amongst 
prepositions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 119 

The importance of those connective particles may be perceived, 
by their becoming the media of transition by which the mind passes 
from one subject to another ; hence, we observe, that their intro- 
duction is productive of that harmony and connection of thoughts, 
which, otherwise, would be imperfect : even to the extent of im- 
plying contradiction ; as, by the following exhibition of the above 
sentence may be perceived : — " The lord of the mansion arrived — 
found none to assist his cause — he found a few impotent menials." 

Conjunctions are generally classed into two kinds: the 
Copulative, which not only join sentences, and unite 
the members of which they are composed, but serve also 
to express the enumeration and continuation of different 
subjects ; as, " He and I went to London ; and from 
London to France ; and thence to America." The Dis- 
junctive, which continue the sentences, but disjoin their 
members; as, "He and I went to London; but did not 
go to France ; neither did we go to America." 

The following appears to be a correct and critical list of con- 
junctions : — 

Copulative — And, also. 

Disjunctive — Nor, or, either, neither, whether, as well as* 

Concessive — Though, although, albeit. 

Adversative — Yet, still, however, but, nevertheless, notwith- 
standing. 

Exceptional — But, unless, otherwise, except, save, 

Conditional — If, unless. 

Dubious — Whether, perhaps, lest. 

Discretive — But. 

Declarative — Namely, to wit. 

Interrogative — Whether, Why, wherefore, 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Comparative — As, so as, same as, such as. 

Augmentative — Besides, even. 

Diminutive — At least, however, yet, nevertheless. 

Casual — Because, for, whereas. 

Illative — Then, since, inasmuch, thereupon, therefore. 

Some of those conjunctions are used as adverbs, and other parts 
of speech, which can be distinguished only by their situations and 
significations in language. For example — the word for, which is, 
in most cases, a preposition, is sometimes a conjunction : thus, 
" I know he loves me, for I experienced his friendship :" that is, 
"for, or because I experienced his friendship." 

Of the above list of conjunctions, Some are represented as be- 
longing to various classes : consequently, when to consider the 
same word of one class, and when of another, must be determined 
by the sense only. The variety of significations which these parti- 
cles assume, in different situations, may be perceived by the peru- 
sal of Mr. Locke's remarks on the word But, which for the learn- 
er's information, I shall subjoin. 

" But is a particle, none more familiar in our language : and 
he who says, it is a discretive conjunction, and that it answers sed 
in Latin, and mais, in French, thinks he has sufficiently explained • 
it : but, it seems to me to intimate several relations which the mind 
gives to the several propositions or parts of them, which it joins by 
this monosyllable. First — ' But to say no more. 1 Here, it intimates 
a stop of the mind in the course it was going, before it came to the 
end of it. Secondly — ' / saw but two plants' Here, it shows, 
that the mind limits the sense to what is expressed, with an exclu- 
sion of all others. Thirdly — ' You pray, but not that God would 
bring you to the true religion? Fourthly — ' But that he would con- 
firm you in your own? 

" The first of these buts intimates a supposition in the mind of 
something otherwise than it should be. The latter shows, that the 
mind makes a direct opposition between that; and what goes be- 
fore it. Fifthly — l All animals have sense : but a dog is an animaV 
Here, it signifies little more than, that the latter proposition is 
joined to the former, as the minor of a syllogism." 



ETYMOLOGY. 121 



Etymology of Interjections. 

Interjections mark an emotion or excitement of 
the mind, produced by the observation, feeling, or re- 
collection, of something extraordinary ; as, " Oh ! my 
God! why hast thou forsaken me!" " Prosperity sur- 
rounds thee to-day, — to-morrow, alas ! thou mayest be 
comfortless !" 



Little more remains to be said of interjections here, except that 
they are of various kinds. Those of Joy, are, — Hey ! brave ! 
bravo ! io ! yeo ! Of Grief, — Ha ! ah ! oh ! alas ! heigh-ho ! Of 
Wonder, — Strange ! heigh ! really ! hah ! Of Praise, — Well 
done ! O brave ! Of Aversion, — Away ! begone ! fye ! tush ! pish ! 
pshaw ! Of Exclamation, — O ! Of Surprise, — -Ha ! aha ! Of 
Silence, — Hush ! hist ! Of Shouting , — Halloo ! Of Laughter, — 
Ha ! he ! hi ! ho ! Of Salutadon, — Hail ! all hail ! Of Calling, — 
Ho ! so ho ! hallo ! hem ! Of Imprecation, — Wo ! Of Attention, 
Hah! list! Io! behold! hark! 



Of Derivation. 



Words are derived from eacrf other in such various ways, that 
we cannot, in many instances, ascertain whether the term was ori- 
ginally employed as a verb, noun, or adjective. For example : — 
The word fine is a verb ; as, " to fine." It is a noun, when it de- 
notes cost to be paid for the breach of any known rule, law, or 
regulation; as, " He will incur a fine by his disobedience." It is 
an adjective, when it expresses the quality of a noun; as, " A fine 
cloth." 

Substantives frequently become verbs, provided the vowels 

which they contain are lengthened in the pronunciation, and the 

consonants softened ; as, from mouse, comes to mouse ; from breathy 

to breathe. Adjectives become verbs, by adding to them the ter- 

11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

mination en ; as, from ripe, comes to ripen ; from hard, harden ; 
from soft, soften. 

Numerous verbs become nouns, by adding the termination er / 
as, from to walk, comes walker; from dance, dancer: The ter- 
mination ly, added to substantives, produces adjectives denoting 
likeness ; as, from heaven, comes heavenly ; from earth, earthly. 

Words which denote the matter out of which any thing is made, 
generally terminate in en; as, "An oaken stick ;" "An ashen 
cane ;" " A leathern bucket ;" " A waxen image j" " A leaden bul- 
let ; A wheaten loaf. 

To pursue those remarks would, probably, be of no further ser- 
vice to the learner than that of burdening his memory with a cata- 
logue of dry and uninteresting peculiarities j which may gratify cu- 
riosity, without affording information adequate to the trouble of 
perusal. We shall therefore conclude, by observing, that most, 
if not all principal words, have been derived from nouns, or quali- 
fy them, in some manner : as, the naming of them, so as to dis- 
tinguish one thing from another, must have been the first method 
adopted by men, to communicate to each other, just notions of the 
objects by which their attention was arrested. Thus, from the 
name man t comes to man, manly, manful, manlike, manhood, man- 
kind. 



BRANCH III. 
SYNTAX. 

The third branch of grammar is Syntax, which treats 
of the union, government, and positions of words, in the 
formation of sentences. 

A Sentence is a collection of words duly arranged, so 
as to express the intention of the mind. 

Sentences are of a twofold nature : Simple and Com- 
pound. 

A Simple Sentence has in it but one agent, one object, 
and one verb; as, "John smote James." 

A Compound Sentence is composed of two or more 
simple sentences, joined by one or more connective parti- 
cles; as, "John smote James, though he loves him." 

The agent or nominative usually takes the lead In the 
sentence, and consequently precedes the verb or attribute 
which conveys Ae action on the object ; as, "A good man 
loves virtue." In this sentence, "A good man 11 is the 
agent or actor; and is nominative case to the verb "loves" 
which conveys the action on the object " virtue :" which 
is properly said to be in the objective case; and under 
the government of the active verb loves. 

The instances in which the nominative follows the verb are 
generally those ensuing : — 

L When the sentence is of the interrogative kind; as. " Was he 
a good man ?" " What has become of your friend ?" 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. When the sentence is imperative, without the introduction 
of the verb let, or an equivalent; as, "Begone thou villain." 

3. When a wish is expressed; as, ( Long live the hero" 

4. When a condition is implied, without using the word if; as, 
" Were he just, he would be applauded." 

5. When a sentence implies prohibition, by the word neither or 
nor; so as to be joined to another sentence; as, "Ye shall not 
inherit the land : neither shall ye set foot thereon." 

6. When the sentence commences with the words here, there, 
where, hence, thence, thus, &c. ; as, " Here is my friend;" " There 
was the eneny ;" "Where is my book?" "Hence arose his dis- 
pleasure;" "Thence proceeds his anger;" " Thus terminated the 
affair." 

The learner will perceive, that most of those sentences are in- 
verted, and do not follow the usual construction or order of phra- 
seology: for example, — "Here is my friend," may be as well 
expressed by saying, " My friend is here" 



Syntax consists of two parts: Concord and Govern- 
ment. 

Concord Is the agreement which' words preserve with 
each other, in gender, number, case, person, or position. 

Government is a power vested in certain words, by 
which they are said to determine the cases, moods or 
tenses of other words, 



Syntax of Substantives. 

RULE I. 

When one Substantive or Noun is qualified by ano- 
ther which is expressive of property or possession, the 



SYNTAX. 125 

former or qualifying noun is generally placed in the 
possessive case ; as, "John's book; : ' "Richard's horse." 
But, when the preposition of is employed, no necessity 
exists for marking the noun which denotes the possessor 
or owner with an apostrophe: as, "The book of John." 
" The horse of Richard." 

1. In familiar conversation, we frequently witness two nouns 
in the possessive case expressed in the same member of a sen- 
tence; that is, when property or possession is attributable to each: 
as, "The king's minister's house:" however, this mode of ex- 
pression, though strictly grammatical, should not be suffered to 
prevail. The following form, as less harsh, and more harmoni- 
ous, may, with propriety, be adopted in its stead: — " The house 
of the king's minister." The reason for which this latter con- 
struction answers the entire use and signification of the former, 
must be apparent, when we reflect on the meaning of the particle 
of. which, in this instance, is found to denote possession or owner- 
ship ; and will, on all such occasions as the above, fully supply 
the use of the apostrophick s, in expressing property or possession ; 
as, "My father's house;" that is, "The house of my father." 

In some dialects, we hear the following or a similar expres- 
sion: — "A minister of the king's." In this phrase, some gram- 
marians assert, that there are two possessive cases. However, 
this is to mistake the nature and idiom of our language, in this 
instance. A due examination of this sentence will afford con- 
clusive evidence of the impropriety of considering it possessed of 
more than one of those cases. The expression, M A minister of 
the king's," truly and grammatically means, " One minister, of 
the king's many ministers." And here, the preposition does not 
serve to mark a possessive case, but, to govern the noun ministers 
in the objective case: understood in the former, and expressed in 
the latter example. 

Although, in certain cases, the particle 0/ attributes property or 
possession to the noun to which it is attached, yet, it does not 
place this noun in the possessive case. On this subject, Mr. Cob- 
bett's grammar of the English language (third edition) contains 
the following remark: — u In the phrases, { the hat of Richard ;' 
11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 the top of the mountain ;' ' the fleet of the nation ;' ' the mind of 
man:' each noun, viz, Richard, mountain, nation, and man, is in 
the possessive case, notwithstanding the turn the sentences re- 
ceive; namely, that of changing from 'Richard's hat,' into Hhe hat 
of Richard,' " &c. 

This theory appears to be the result of an oversight on the part 
of Mr. Cobbett. More reflection would have showm him, that 
each of these nouns is in the objective case, and influenced by the 
preposition of: which always retains its governing quality, how- 
ever situated in a sentence. A pronoun substituted for the noun 
will instantly exhibit the error: — " Give me the hat of Richard." 
To this demand, a person who may not comprehend the name 
mentioned, would naturally inquire, — " The hat of whom?" The 
answer would as naturally be, " The hat of Richard ;" or, " The 
hat of him." Observe, if Richard were in the possessive case, the 
query would be, — "The hat of whose?" and the answer conse- 
quently, — "The hat of his:" expressions not a little ludicrous. 
See Syntax of Relative Pronouns, Note 6, Rule II. 

2. The particle of is not, in every instance, a substitute for the 
possessive case. We properly say, "A bed of down;" "A yard 
of cloth ;" but, we cannot, with propriety, say, " Down's bed ;" 
"Cloth's yard." The reason is obvious, — In the one instance, 
we exhibit sort or description, as intended; in the other, — posses- 
sion or property ; which, in these cases, is not attributable. 

3. The sign of the possessive case is improperly omitted in the 
following example : — "Goose eggs." Johnson. Rambler. No. 138. 
This should be, " Goose's eggs." 

When a substantive phrase is introduced, as explanatory of a 
preceding noun, both are said to be in apposition; and conse- 
quently in the same case : as, " Logick, the right use of reason, is 
much to be admired." Here, the phrase, the right tise of reason, 
is explanatory of the word logick; the latter, as part of a sentence, 
being the nominative case to the verb is, as well as the former 
word logick: and both connected by a relative and a verb under- 
stood : thus, — " Logick, which is the right use of reason, is much 
to be admired." 

As personal pronouns are substitutes for nouns, they naturally 
undergo a government of case from the words to which they are 
attached, in the same manner as the nouns which they are de~ 



SYNTAX. 127 

Signed to represent ; as, " By their fruit, ye shall know them ;" 
11 We are usually estimated accordingly to our company ;" "Each 
acted agreeably to his instructions." 

A noun which governs another, in the possessive case, is some- 
limes omitted, but understood ; as, " He lodges at Hunter's :" that 
is, "at Hunter's house." 

4. When two or more nouns relate to the same object of prop- 
erty or possession, the possessive sign should be applied to each ;* 
as, "It is William's, Peter's, and Jomrs estate." That this con- 
struction is requisite admits not of doubt ; as the intervention of 
other words which are incapable of altering the sense or structure 
proves : as, " It is not only William's, but, it is Peter's, as well as 
John's estate." Were this sentence thus written, " It is not only 
William, but, it is Peter, as well as John's estate;" the construc- 
tion would be insufferable: — and, is the identity of possession less 
conspicuous in the one instance than in the other ? 

The expressions, "He lives at Hunter, the printer's." — "at 
Hunter's, the printer," are improper. Both nouns should, in each 
case, take the possessive sign ; as one is in apposition to the other, 
and intended as its explication: that is, "He lives at Hunter's 
house, — the printer's house." When an epithet expressive of a 
name and an employment is introduced, the sentence ought to 
be varied: and, instead of saying, — "Hannibal's, the general's 
route," we should say, " The route of Hannibal, the general." To 
say, as Mr. Murray does, " I left the parcel at Smith's, the book- 
seller," is improper; the word house, understood, being called 
a bookseller. 

In order to explain this, and to show how liable persons are to 
commit errors in the use of the possessive case, we shall select one 
passage out of many from Mr. Murray. On the 8th rule of his 
Syntax, he thus writes: — " With respect to anomalies and varia- 
tions of language thus established, it is the grammarian's business 
to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the 
decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes of 
expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical saga- 



* How Mr. Murray could have hoped to inculcate a contrary doctrine with 
success, is not a little extraordinary. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

city ; and, in some degree obscure points which are sufficiently 
clear and decided ; but, he cannot reasonably hope, either to sue 
ceed in his aims, or to assist the learner, in discovering and 
respecting the true standard and principles of language. Cases 
which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the gramma- 
rian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the 
ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety, and, his reasonings 
may refine and improve the language - f but, when authority speaks 
out and decides the point, it were perpetually to unsettle the lan- 
guage, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies then, under the 
limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the plainest* 
analogies." 

Viewing it in every sense, perhaps a more strange passage has 
seldom made its appearance ! But, under what authority 1 Under 
that of a writer who undertakes to present publick strictures or* 
the subject of English Grammar ! 

Our present object is not to treat of a grammarian^ submission ' 
to anomalies ; nor, how a grammarian may pertinaciously oppose 
this proper authority, which compels anomalies, or, (with our 
reader's leave) gross irregularities to supply the place, and answer 
the use of analogies: neither shall we contend about obscuring 
points which are sufficiently clear and decided: nor yet how ca,ses 
which custom has left dubious, may be refined and improved by the 
reasonings of a grammarian ; and still those reasonings which re- 
fine and improve the language, tend only to unsettle it ; because this 
proper authority (which obliges anomalies to answer for analogies) 
speaks out and decides the point ! To mention these inconsisten- 
cies will, we are satisfied, supersede the necessity of further expo- 
sition on their nullity. 

While examining the many errors in the foregoing quotation, 
we shall have occasion to depart from our intended mode of in- 
vestigation, by introducing observations which relate to a different 
part of speech from that under examination. 

In order to afford a satisfactory acquaintance with the remarks 
which are designed to justify the conceived animadversions, the 

* The word plain admits not of comparison. See psgc DC, 



SYNTAX. 129 

presentation of a few preliminaries will be necessary. I. When a. 
personal pronoun is employed, it should invariably assume the 
position and regimen of the noun which it is proposed to repre- 
sent: that is, when the writer or speaker intends that it should 
refer to its prototype : Thus, — If we employ a noun in the nomi- 
native case, the pronoun which subsequently supplies its place, to 
avoid a repetition of the noun, must be in the same case; unless 
some governing w r ord intervene ; as, " John is happy because he 
is virtuous." Here, the pronoun is of the same case as John. 
But, " John loves me, because I obey him:" here, the pronoun is 
in the objective case, — governed by the intervening verb obey. 
2. When a noun or pronoun is rendered possessive, by its con- 
nection with another noun, the latter noun is that to which the 
pronoun subsequently introduced will refer; but not to the noun 
or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, " Blair's Lectures on Rhet- 
orick are useful, though they contain many instances of bad gram- 
mar:" not, " though he contains." 

The first he used by our author on this occasion, does not relate 
to what he desired it should ; which was, to the noun gramma- 
rian ; because this noun is in the possessive case, not in the nomi- 
native : unless, that by a grammatical license extraordinary, he 
could constitute the '■''grammarians business''' a. he, and thus impute 
to it the qualities of gender and animation. This he (as a newly 
generated phenomenon) may accomplish much in the display of 
his talents ; being possessed of such " critical sagacity," as to ren- 
der points which are " sufficiently clear, in some degree obscure" 
The second he is not so fortunate in the display of his judgment ; 
for, we are informed, that with all his " critical sagacity, he can- 
not reasonably hope, either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the 
learner." The last he isa" grammarian's province, that, by his 
reasonings, may refine and improve the language !" 

To show the learner how easily all this confusion may be 
avoided, as far as it relates to the possessive case, we need but 
propose a slight alteration in each sentence, and all Mr. Murray's 
hes will be tenable. Instead of saying, " the grammarian's busi- 
ness," — " the grammarian's province," we should say, " the business 
of the grammarian," &c. In this instance, though the noun gram- 
marian is in the objective case, the pronoun which refers to it may 
be in the nominative : as, " I relieved Thomas when he demanded 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

my assistance." This theory is easily applied to the expression, 
" I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller." 

IdrWhy we can refer to a nominative or an objective case, and 
not to a possessive, is, because a word in the possessive case is not 
an independent noun, but merely a qualifying word; and cannot 
stand by its self. We sometimes say, " He went to John's ;" but 
then, we mean, " John's house." 

5. When more persons or objects than one are represented, as 
possessing qualities, faculties, or possessions, care must be ob- 
served, that such qualities, faculties, or possessions, be expressed 
in the plural number ; as, " The minds of the children are ripe for 
instruction;" not, " the mind;" as this would imply, that the chil- 
dren possessed but one mind ': — except, when we use a noun which 
is alike in both numbers; as, " The knowledge of the children is 
excellent:" or, when one object of property is attributable to 
many ; as, " William and Thomas divided their portion with their 
sister" We cannot, therefore, with propriety, say, as Mr. Cob- 
bett does, in the introduction of his English Grammar : — "In the 
affairs, and on the condition of men." As men are said to have af- 
fairs, they must have conditions. Nor, as Mr. Murray does, — 
<: Observations on this head may serve to inform their judgment 
and direct their determination." Exercises, page 140. Again, — 
"Grammar treats of the form and sound of letters. Murray's 
Grammar. P. 13. 37th Ed. " Irregular verbs do not form their 
imperfect tense and perfect participle, &c." Page 111. In the for- ' 
mer the language should be " forms and sounds :" in the latter, — 
" their imperfect tenses and perfect participles" " Men are hourly 
betrayed by a mistaken opinion of their own powers, and a negli- 
gent inspection of their own character." Rambler. No. 28. " Opin- 
ions and characters" would have been better. " I would advise 
them to lay aside their common places and to think closely of their 
subject" Blair. Led. 32. " Subjects" " I have seen many persons f 
who, while you are speaking to them, instead of looking at, and 
attending to you, fix their eyes on the ceiling, look out at the win- 
dow, play with a dog, twirl their snuff box, or pick their nose" 
Chesterfield. Letters to his son. No. 58. Many persons may be 
limited to one snuffbox-, but, not to one nose, as the language of the 
quotation would imply. 

Lest, by dwelling so much on this point, the reader may sup- 



' SYNTAX. 131 

pose, that an undue importance, as the result of too precise an in- 
quiry, is attached to the exposition of what some may be pleased to 
consider a trifling inaccuracy, we shall take leave to introduce, 
in conclusion, the following circumstance ; under the hope of 
proving the necessity of scrupulous attention to the proper em- 
ployment of words, in the instance of which we have been treating. 

In the case of a certain woman who was tried at Winchester, in 
March, 1827, for the murder of her child, the verdict returned was, 
that " she was guilty, on the finding of thirteen jurors on their 
oath" This, her counsel argued, was wrong, as thirteen men 
could not have been sworn by one oath; but, by thirteen oaths. 
The judge quashed the inquisition, and she was accordingly dis- 
charged. This circumstance shows the unquestionable necessity 
of strict adherence to the definite use of words. 



RULE II. 

When two or more 'singular nouns are connected by a 
conjunction copulative, expressed or understood, the pro- 
noun which refers to them must be in the plural number ; 
and the verb which represents their action, sufferance or 
condition, must agree with them accordingly : as, "John 
and Richard love learning, because they desire to im- 
prove ;" " Thomas and William are esteemed for their 
prudence;" " Mercy and truth have met." 

To exemplify this rule, nothing further is necessary than to 
remark, that we cannot, with propriety, say, " John and Richard 
loves learning, because he or it desires to improve/' A reference 
to the conjugation of the verbs, and the declensions of the pro- 
nouns, will allay any doubts on this point, if entertained in the 
learner's mind, 

A few examples of its violation will sufficiently aid the stu- 
dent in discovering its full import :-^- <c Your gold and silver is 
cankered j" "Both body and mind is disordered." These should 
be " are cankered,'* and " are disordered." " Persons are apt to ima- 
gine, that magnificent words, accumulated epithets, &nd a swell- 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing kind of expression, by rising above what is usual or vulgar, 
contributes to, or even forms the sublime style." Blair. Lee. 4. k 
" contribute to, or even form the sublime style." " The purity of 
his life; the simplicity of his manners ; and, the gentleness of his 
disposition ; has rendered him an object of admiration and esteem :" 
" have rendered." " The freedom and laxity of a rustick life pro- 
duces remarkable peculiarities of conduct or manner." Rambler , 
No. 138. "produce." ,' By the oral tradition of national ballads 
was conveyed, all the historical knowledge and instruction of the 
first ages:" u were conveyed." "The expiation of crimes and 
renovation of the forfeited hopes of divine favor constitutes a 
large portion of every religion." Ramb. No. 110. " constitute" 

1. The word with, on some occasions, appears to possess the 
nature of a copulative conjunction. Some grammar writers 
(amongst whom is Mr. Cobbett) maintain that it does; and there- 
lore assert, that when it joins two or more nouns, the verb to 
which they refer must agree with them, as if connected by a copu- 
lative particle ; as, " The bag with the money were stolen ;" " The 
horse with his gear were sold ;" " The boat with her crew have 
been saved." " The verb must be thus constructed," say those 
grammarians, " provided both bag and money were stolen ; and 
that the speaker or writer intended so to represent. A similar 
observation applies to the other cases." 

This theory will, we suspect, be scarcely sustained. The word 
with is a preposition only ; and will, on all occasions, govern the 
noun which it precedes in the objective case : and consequently 
preclude it from participating of the power of a nominative. The 
following positions will dissipate every doubt, in this instance : — 
"The bag was stolen, with the money;" "The horse was sold, 
with his gear ;" " The boat has been saved, with her crew." A 
personal pronoun, put after the preposition, will show, that the 
second noun, in each phrase, is governed in the objective case : 
thus, — the sentence, " The bag, with the guineas in it, was stolen," 
— if transposed, will read, — "The bag was stolen, with them 
(the guineas) in it:" — not, " The bag were stolen, with they (the 
guineas) in it;" — a construction which would be unavoidable, 
were the objectionable theory admitted. 

The following is an example of correct construction suited to 
this case: — " This principle, with others of the same kind, sup- 



SYNTAX. 133 

poses man to act from a brute impulse." Rami. No. 4. When 
the conjunction and can be introduced, it should be employed, as 
preferable to the preposition, and unattended by obscurity. 

Note. — In all such instances, ivith denotes accompaniment, not 
union. See Syntax of Prepositions, Note 1. 

2. Sometimes in writing, and frequently in speaking, we con- 
nect a singular noun and pronoun of different persons, by means 
of a copulative conjunction; as, "John, thou, and I, love learn- 
ing ; because we expect to promote our interests by it." In this 
case, the words John, thou, and J, constitute a term equivalent to 
the word we; and consequently require the pronoun which agrees 
with them to be in the plural number; and the verb as above con- 
structed. Thus, the first person takes precedence of the second 
and third. But, in connecting the second and third persons, we 
may say, "John loves learning, and so dost thou ;" or, "John and 
thou love learning." In every sentence thus arranged, the third 
person, for the sake of courtesy, takes the lead in the sentence ; 
and the second precedes the first; as, "John, thou, and I, did 
call ;" not, -— "John, I, and thou ;" nor, — " I, thou, and John." 



RULE III. 

The Infinitive Mood (as has been observed) frequently 
partakes of the nature of a Noun, and becomes a nomina- 
tive case to a Verb ; as, " To sin is contrary to the law of 
God." It also assists in making a phrase, or part of a 
sentence, a nominative ; as, " To live in charity with all 
men is a blessing." 

1. Two infinitive phrases, expressed through the medium of 
one and the same verb, do not form two nominative cases; 
whether the latter infinitive be expressed or not ; as, " To obtain 
the friendship and interest of so good a man is necessary." Here, 
friendship and interest, as two requisites, present a case which 
may induce the young learner to expect, that the verb which 
agrees with them should be are, — not is. But, reflection will 
12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

convince him, that these two nouns are in the objective case j and 
governed by the verb to obtain, expressed to the one, and under- 
stood to the other: and, that to obtain these things, or many more, 
if introduced, is what is necessary. But, when different subjects 
are expressed by various infinitives, we shall have more nomina^ 
lives than one, and the verb must change accordingly; as, " To 
be just in all your actions; to serve God with your heart and 
soul; and, to love your neighbor as yourself; constitute you a 
man of wisdom and virtue." By this passage, we perceive, that 
one of these qualifications alone, would not produce the character 
described. 

That the infinitive mood not only participates of the properties 
of a noun, but is, on most occasions, resolvable into the essence 
of one, mast be apparent, from a view of the variations to which 
the following examples are subjected: thus, — "To eat is neces- 
sary; but, to fast occasionally is proper," is, in sense, equivalent 
to, "eating is necessary; but, fasting is proper." "To obtain 
friendship and interest," signifies, "the obtaining, or, the obtain- 
ment of friendship and interest." "To be just in your actions," 
means, "Justice in your actions." "To serve God," implies, 
" Servitude to God:" and, " To love your neighbor," is equivalent 
to, "Love to your neighbor;" or, " The love of your neighbor." 

A part of a sentence sometimes becomes a nominative case to 
a verb; as, "The motion of the earth round its axis causes a 

continual succession of day and night." 

The following examples of improper construction are adapted 
to the preceding rules: — "To hurt, unnecessarily, the feelings 
of a fellow creature, and triumph in his misfortunes, is an act of 
unparalleled cruelty." Tillotson. " are acts of cruelty." "To 
discourage vice, and to promote virtue, has been the practice of 
all good and pious men." Clark. Com. "have been the practices J' 
11 To be ungrateful to our benefactors, or, unconcerned for their 
welfare, mark a vicious and degraded character:" "marks. 17 "'To 
speak or to write perspicuously, and agreeably with purity, with 
grace, and strength, are attainments of the utmost importance." 
Blair. Introduction to Lectures. " is an attainment^ &c. The 
nominatives in the two former of these examples, are each con- 
nected by a copulative conjunction; and therefore require trye 
verbs in the forms in which they appear corrected. In the two 



SYNTAX. 135 

latter, they are united by a disjunctive conjunction, and require a 
contrary form for each verb: as by the ensuing rule will be 
perceived : — 



RULE IV 

When two or more Singular Nouns are connected by 
a Disjunctive Conjunction, the Pronoun which refers to 
them must be in the singular number; and the Verb on 
which either, or any of them depends, must vary its end- 
ings accordingly : as, " Pride or ignorance makes man 
appear ridiculous; 7 ' " James, William, or John loves 
study, because he desires to improve;" "Neither of my 
friends teas present'* 7 

The cause of this variation of the verb and pronoun, from that 
observable in the use of the copulative conjunction, must clearly 
appear, when we consider the nature of a disjunctive particle, as 
well as its use; which is, to disjoin or separate every acting mem- 
ber of the sentence ; thus causing the one, or, the other of the nom- 
inatives to become the actor: as, in the sentence, " James, Wil- 
liam, or John, loves study because he desires to improve," the 
meaning is, " James loves study because he desires;" or, "Wil- 
liam loves study," &e. ; or, " John loves study." 

A few examples of the violation of this rule will suffice to 
guard the learner against error in its application: — "Neither 
history nor tradition furnish such information." Robertson. 
Hist. Am, page 1. "furnishes." " Those whom passion or in- 
terest have already depraved, have some claim to compassion. * 
Rambler. No. 107. "has depraved." "Among the ladies whom 
prudence or modesty have made most eminent, who has ever 
complained of an amiable form T Ram. No. 111. "has made , 
most eminent." "There is scarcely any sentiment in which, 
amidst the innumerable varieties of inclination that nature or 
accident have scattered in the world, we find greater numbers 
concurring than in the wish for riches." Ram. No. 131. u has 
cattered." "Among the innumerable practices, by which inter- 
est or envy have taught those who live on literary fame to disturb 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

each other, one of the most common is the charge of plagiarism/ 5 
Ram. 143. "has taught." " The same haughtiness of contempt or 
vehemence of desire that prompt the act of injustice, will more 
strongly incite its justification." Ram. 158. "that prompts the 
act of injustice." "Neither mind nor body have been spared." 
Ram. 199. "has been spared." "Such is the delight of mental 
superiority, that none, on whom nature or study have conferred 
it, would purchase the gifts of fortune by its loss." Ram. 150. " has 
conferred it." 



RULE V. 

When Pronouns, or, a Noun and Pronoun of different 
persons, in the singular number, are disjunctively con- 
nected, the accompanying Verb should be repeated to 
each; as, "I am wrong, or, thou art; 11 "John is the 
person, or, thou art who is in error," 

" When pronouns are thus connected," says Mr. Murray, " the 
verb must agree with that person which is placed nearest to it ; 
as, ' I, or thou art to blame ;' * Thou, or I am in fault.' " 

That it must agree (as he says) we have no hesitation in believ- 
ing ; especially when we reflect on the authority which dictates the 
compulsory enactment : — even that of " a respectable gramma- 
rian" who perhaps would compel " anomalies to become the 
law, as clearly as the plainest analogies." However, such au- 
thorities or grammarians as those described by Mr. Murray, 
have but a limited jurisdiction over the import of this page, 
whilst error constitutes the result of their determinations. The 
impropriety of our author's assertion, in this instance, is so ob- 
vious, that a mere allusion ought to be sufficient to induce a 
conclusive refutation: nevertheless, fearing the want of dis- 
cernment in some young minds, we shall simply observe, that, 
in the sentence, " I, or, thou, art to blame," one, or, the other 
only is to blame : and, as we have but one verb to which both 
nominatives refer, the meaning must be, " I art to blame, or, 
thou art." 



SYNTAX. 137 



RULE VI. 

When a Singular Noun or Pronoun, and a Plural 
one, are connected by a Disjunctive Conjunction, the 
verb which expresses their agency, and agrees with 
each, should be repeated ; " as, " Poverty was not in- 
jurious to him; neither were riches." 

By the example, we perceive, that so far is this mode of expres- 
sion from being attended with circumlocution, that only one word 
more than Mr. Murray employs, on the occasion, is introduced : 
and, that whilst the form, here given to the sentence, will bear the 
test of the closest criticism, his will not, as may be observed : — 
"Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him:" that is, 
"Neither poverty were injurious," &e. 

The following sentence is exceptionable in this instance: — 
u The is called the definite article ; because it ascertains what 
particular thing or things are meant." Murray. If the former 
effect were intended, the language must be, — " what particular 
thing are meant" 



RULE VII. 

Nouns of Multitude which admit of the common dis* 
ti actions of singular and plural, require Verbs and Pro- 
nouns to agree with them, accordingly to the forms in 
which they are employed : for example, — Council is a 
noun which admits of a singular and plural form ; as* 
** The council has met ; and it has agreed with publick 
opinion:" — " The councils have met; and they have 
agreed," &c. But, Nouns of Multitude which have not 
those distinctions, will have the Pronouns which refer to 
them, in the plural number only: and the Verb must 
12* 



138 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



agree with them accordingly ; as, " The people are hap- 
py, and they enjoy peace;" " The rabble are seditious, 
because they are misled." 

The nouns of multitude which admit of a plural form only, are, 
rabble, people, folks, peasantry, mankind, publick, antipodes, and 
perhaps a few others, Those which possess a singular and plural 
construction are the following : — 



Council 


society 


cabal 


meeting 


nation 


church 


host 


conclave 


sect 


kingdom 


party 


constitution 


senate 


sept 


pack 


synod 


parcel 


swarm 


court 


flock 


mob 


cabinet 


faction 


squad 


class 


government 


herd 


gang 


crowd 


fleet 


family 


army 


group 


score 


hundred, &c. 


assembly 


crew 


clan 


set 


dozen 


multitude 


conference 


committee 


rank 


tribe 


parliament 


shoal 


file 


company 


collection 


drove 


country 


firm 


association 


number 


covey, &c. 



Those nouns which are restricted to the plural number do not 
properly permit the indefinite article to precede them. We some- 
times say, " A brave people;" "A ferocious rabble;" but, in 
these instances, people is made equivalent to nation ; and, rabble 
to mob. 

The following sentence is one of wrong construction: — " The 
senate, which were to act as counsellors to the king, was com- 
posed of one hundred of the principal citizens of Rome." Gold- 



SYNTAX. 139 

smith. Hist. Rome. Chap. 2. In the first member of this sen- 
tence, the word senate is treated as a plural noun of multitude : 
in the second, as a singular one. This want of uniformity in 
its use is, at best, an inconsistency. 

Some nouns admit of no plural distinctions : as, wine, wood, beer, 
sugar, tea, timber, fruit, meat, goodness, happiness, and perhaps 
all nouns ending in ness. The cause of this peculiarity is, that 
these are generical terms, the number of which is expressed by 
their species individually considered. We cannot properly say, 
41 He drank three wines ;" " How many teas or sugars* have 
arrived V But, we justly say, " He drank three sorts of wine ;" 
" How many sorts of tea or sugar have arrived 1" Neither 
should we say, "He performed four goodnesses," — but, "He 
performed four kinds of goodness ;" or, " four (individual) acts 
of goodness." 

To avoid repetitions in language, and to express our ideas in 
the most concise forms, an ellipsis is both convenient and neces- 
sary. An ellipsis of the noun occurs thus : — " He is a learned, 
wise, and good man:" that is, " He is a learned man, a wise 
man, and a good *tnan" 



Syntax of Articles. 

RULE I. 

The English language has three Articles : — A, An, 
and The. 

The Articles a and an agree with Nouns of a singular 



* Were this phraseology tolerated, we may, with equal propriety say, 
"How many hays, snuffs, or corns, have you for sale ?" instead of, "How 
many sorts of hay, snuff, ? or corn, have you ?" &c. Further, — every noun 
of this species which, in reality, admits of a plural form, must possess a sin- 
gular one, and consequently present the indefinite article before it: — 
how ludicrous would the answer appear to the query, What is that? It is 
a sugar, — a tea, — a hay, — a grass, — or, a beer, &c., — an unquestion- 
sble construction, if the objectionable premises were legitimate. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

construction only ; whether individually or collectively 
considered; as, "A man, a horse, an egg, an apple, a 
dozen, a hundred." 

The Article the agrees with Nouns of a singular or 
plural construction ; as, " The man, the men ; the horse, 
the horses." 

The Articles are not prefixed to Nouns which imply 
general terms ; that is, Nouns which express the whole 
of a species : as, " Bread is wholesome food ;" " Timber 
is a useful article." 

When the Indefinite Article is placed before two or 
more words which succeed each other, but have not a 
common regimen, it should be repeated in its' requisite 
form before the one which varies in construction ; (by 
its commencing with a vowel or a silent h) thus — " If 
we would be unblameable before our Creator, we should 
render service, equally, to a friend, neighbor, and an 
enemy." 

The following constructions are erroneous in this respect : — 
"He is anxious to procure a house and orchard;" "He has 
gained a fair and honorable reputation." The first, if read 
accordingly to grammatical discipline, means, — "a house and 
a orchard:" The second, — "a fair and a honorable reputation. 

1. An additional measure of assertion sometimes attends the 
use of the indefinite article, which is not observable by its ex- 
clusion from the sentence: thus Tillitson, — " Little hope of 
future felicity abides in the bosom of a wicked man." This 
form of expression seems to imply a total extinction of hope ; 
whilst the introduction of the article would intimate some hope, 
though ever so trivial ; as, " A little hope of future felicity 
abides," &c. What a vast difference of meaning from a change 
so trivial! 

A repetition of the article, in some cases, creates an emphasis ; 



SYNTAX. 141 

as, "The king and the lords gave their assent," is language 
more emphatical than, " The king and lords gave their assent," 

2. The definite article is sometimes employed as a substitute 
for a relative pronoun and a verb ; as, " He was not the person 
the most forward in doing an injury." Pitt. Speeches. Its im- 
proper use in this instance should be avoided ; as the relative is 
not represented by the article, but is omitted by ellipsis : thus, 
11 He was not the person who was the most forward (person) in 
doing an injury." To say, "He was not the person, the most 
forward person," &c. is incomprehensible language : and yet the 
original form would necessarily imply this construction. 

Another form in which this article is prettily used, thus avoid- 
ing much circumlocution, is the following: — " He has much of 
the gentleman about him." And, as Mr. Murray remarks, " It 
is elegantly put after the manner of the French, for the pronoun 
possessive:" as, " He looks him full in the face ;" that is, " in his 
face." In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the 
ground; that is, "their foreheads." 

That many errors should arise in the use of this part of speech 
is improbable ; however, the remark is worthy of notice, that 
Mr. Murray has erred in its application, even in the above quo- 
tation, though treating of the subject. " This article," he says, 
(as before cited) " is often elegantly put, after the manner of 
the French, for the pronoun possessive :" as, — See the examples. 
From these examples, we are led to conclude, that our author 
means no particular pronoun for which the article is substituted. 
The sentence should therefore be written — " for a pronoun pos- 
sessive." 

The following passages exhibit erroneous applications, as they 
respect this part of speech: — "My hair was perfumed with 
variety of unguents." Rambler. No. 130. "In less than a 
month, I was perplexed with variety of offers, and contrariety 
of prospects." Rambler. No. 132. The first should be, " a va- 
riety of unguents;" — the second, "a variety of offers, and a 
contrariety of prospects." 

The following exposition will throw additional light on the use 
of the articles: — " Man is an imitative animal." This mode of 
expression is so unlimited, in its construction, as to impart an 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

idea in which the whole of mankind is included : whereas, when 
either of the articles which suit this expression is employed, the 
meaning becomes more specifick and limited ; and extends only to 
the individual object, — man: as, " A man is an imitative ani- 
mal ;" " The man is an imitative animal." 

3. The words very and most are frequently, though improperly 
used, as if of synonymous import ; as, " He is a very able 
scholar;' 5 " He is a most able scholar." The impropriety, in this 
instance, arises from an inappropriate use of the indefinite article 
before the word most. This word, on all occasions, implies a 
comparison between the object which it determines and some 
others ; and should be preceded by the definite article. We pro- 
perly say, " He is the most able scholar of all j" but, we should nor 
say, " He is a most able scholar of all." 

To idiomatick phraseology, we are indebted for the following 
anomalous use of the definite article before adverbs and adjec- 
tives; " The sooner, — the better:" — " The more neglect, — the 
greater evil." 

An ellipsis of the article is thus employed ; " A field, house, 
and garden:" that is, " A field, a house, and a garden." " The 
year, month, and day, of his departure :" that is, " The year, the 
month, and the day." When a particular emphasis is necessary, 
we should not omit the insertion of the article ; as, il The law and 
the prophets declare it. 5 * 



Syntax of Adjectives. 

RULE L 

An Adjective, an Adjective Pronoun, or a word 
which assumes the nature of an Adjective, must refer \o a 
Noun expressed or understood; as, " The vicious man 
is never happy ;" " That action was just ;" " The wise 
are prudent:" that is, " The wise persons" 

1. Every pronominal adjective must agree in number with the 



SYNTAX. 143 

noun to which it relates; as, " This horse, — these horses;"— 
u That man, — those men;" "Another house, — other houses." 
The following constructions are erroneous in this respect: — 
<; Within this few hours must I be dragged into the county." 
Ram. No. 15. " Every member of society have joys and sorrows 
of their own :" " has joys and sorrows of his or her own." " We 
ought to distinguish our own interests from that of others :" " from 
those of others." 

Many errors, in the use of this part of speech, have prevailed, 
even amongst our best writers. Blair, in particular, has, on nu- 
merous occasions, fallen into mistakes in the employment of ad- 
jectives. Thus, " To attend to all the lesser graces." Led. 3, 
a Nothing can be more false." Led. 4. " Those lesser discrimi- 
nations of character." Led. 47. u All his ornaments must be of 
the chastest kind." Led. 37. The expressions, — " more and most 
perfed; fuller, more full; fullest, most full ; truest and most true;' 1 
are favorite phrases with this writer. However, these are all 
improper. We have no such word as " lesser." M More false,- 1 
and the like, are equally absurd. If a circumstance be false, per- 
fect, or true, evidently it can never be more so. Nothing can be 
pronounced perfect, or full, while it wants the most minute touch, 
particle, or addition, which the imagination can conceive : and 
therefore, if once perfed or full, will admit of no further amend- 
ment or increase to render it more so. Lowth, Johnson, Swift, 
and Murray, have frequently misused those words : but, to give 
more examples here, would be both tedious and unnecessary. 
The reader is therefore referred to the Etymology of Adjectives ; 
where he will rind a list of such words as do not admit of those 
excesses. 

2. In comparing two persons or things, by means of an adjec- 
tive, care must be taken, that the superlative state be not em- 
ployed : We properly say, " John is the taller of the two ;" but, 
we should not say, " John is the tallest of the tvjo." The reason 
is plain : we compare but two persons, and must therefore use the 
comparative state. But, in comparing m,ore than two, we inva- 
riably introduce the superlative ; as, " John is the tallest of the 
three ; or, " He is the tallest of all." In this last instance, we 
compare one, — not with another ; but, with many ; or, the en- 
tire of a certain number, In every such case, the latter term 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

employed must be a noun of multitude j or in the plural number^ 
so as to contain the former. 

The following are examples of erroneous construction suited to 
this rule : — " This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer 
corruptions." Swift. "Fewest corruptions." "My situation 
has, of any other, least risque to encounter." Tatler. " Of all 
others." " Our verse is, after the Italian, the most diversified 
and harmonious of any of the modern dialects." Blair. Led. 9, 
" Of all" 

3. An adjective in the comparative or superlative state will not 
admit of a comparative or superlative term superadded. We can- 
not grammatically say, " A worserman;" "A more stronger 
horse ;" " The most genteelest person." These should be, " A 
worse man ;" " A stronger horse ;" " The most genteel person." 

4 Adjectives are often improperly employed as adverbs ; as, 
" tolerable good ;" " proper spoken;" " excellent formed." These 
should be, " tolerably, — properly, — excellently." " To which they 
are extreme injurious." Swift. " I can never think so indif- 
ferent of him." Sheridan. " Extremely— indifferently" 

5. " When united to an adjective or an adverb," says Mr. Mur- 
ray, " not ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it: as, 
1 exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great, exceedingly well, ex- 
ceedingly more active.' But, when it is joined to an adverb or 
an adjective, having that termination, the ly is omitted : as, ' some 
men think exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly:' 
' She appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely.' " 

Perhaps all adverbs which terminate in ly are adverbs of quali- 
ty ; and, as such, they indicate manner : as, " She sings melodi- 
ously," means, — " She sings in a melodious manner." Adverbs 
of this class, which denote an excess of quality, are properly ex- 
pressed in connection with other adverbs and adjectives; as, "He 
is very good ;" " They are very well ;" " John is exceedingly hap- 
py ;" " He is exceedingly well" 

Now, the word exceedingly signifies, in an eminent, or uncom- 
mon degree: therefore, we reasonably and grammatically say, 
" The result was exceedingly dreadful :" " This person is ex- 
ceedingly great:" "He is exceedingly more active than you;" 



SYNTAX. 145 

that i?,— " The result was dreadful, in an eminent, or uncows- 
mon degree;" &c. But, to say, "She appeared to be exceeding 
lovely," is to say, " she appeared to be surpassing, or, to surpass 
what was lovely ;" and, to say, " He is exceeding well," signifies, 
that "he is more than well;" which, in language, as w T ell as in 
sense, is neither intended nor possible. Shakspeare h^s nearly a 
similar expression, — " ; Tis strange, 'tis passing strange." This 
sort of interpretation is certainly contrary to our meaning, which 
is, — " She appeared to be lovely, in an eminent degree ;" " He 
is well, in an eminent degree." These proofs clearly show, that 
the termination ought to be preserved, on all similar occasions: 
and, instead of saying, " She appeared exceeding lovely," we 
should say, " She appeared exceedingly lovely." 

6. Exceedingly, when employed as an augmenting particle, 
intimates, that the word to which it is prefixed is designed to be 
represented, as having attained the highest and most extensive 
qualification of which it is capable : it is therefore unaccountably 
appended to words which already possess a superlative significa- 
tion. We consequently object to the expressions, "exceedingly 
clearly;" "exceedingly correctly ;" because they represent those 
subjects which have previously arrived at clearness or correctness , 
as admitting of further excesses, which is impossible. 

7. Accordingly to the above principles, the adjective according 
(or agreeable) is frequently, but improperly, substituted for the 
adverb accordingly (or agreeably.) Take, as an example, the fore- 
going sentence, thus reversed: — "An adjective is improperly 
substituted for an adverb. accordAng (or agreeable) to the above 
principles :" Make the inquiry, — how is this done? " Accord- 
ingly (or agreeably) to the above principles :" or, " in an ac- 
cording (or agreeable) manner to the above principles." 

8. " Tolerable clearly, — Extreme lively," are great solecisms 
These should be, " Tolerably clearly, —Extremely lively:" that 
is, in a tolerably clear manner, &c. See Etymology of Adverbs. 

9. Having introduced such remarks as appear suitable on this 
subject, we shall further observe, (and, we trust, for the benefit 
of the learner, if he shall feel disposed to adopt our opinion,) 
that we heartily disapprove of those modes of expression : par- 
ticularly, when they can be so easily avoided. Indeed, we see no 

13 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

advantage in multiplying additional epithets, or hooking on use- 
less appendages, which can add no energy to the drift of the 
sentence; but, on the contrary, must weaken its efficacy and 
destroy its dignity. For example: — If a transaction be only 
tolerably clear to the comprehension, it is not clear at all. The 
phrases, very right, extremely wrong, very honest, exceedingly 
correct, and similar ones, though common amongst the generality 
of English speakers, are, to say the least, little better than redun- 
dant and enfeebling gewgaws. If an act be right, it cannot 
be wrong : if a man be honest, he is not dishonest ; nor can an- 
other be more honest-, and, if correet, not incorrect, &c. No words 
can add more force or equity to the action or actor in such cases, 
"Very straight, — quite empty, — very full," and the like, cannot 
be too studiously avoided. " The sentence would be more correct 
in the following form." Murray 's Grammar: Note to Rule XXIL 

10. Adverbs are frequently and improperly used, both in writ- 
ing and conversation, instead of adjectives j as, " John wrote his 
book, in a manner agreeably to the modern style :" " agreeable" 
" All men love whatever is suitably to their inclinations:" suitable." 

On this subject, Mr. Murray presents an example of what he 
denominates the improper use of adverbs, in place of adjectives : 
and, for a confirmation of his theory, refers the student to a rule 
of his own composition, in his exercises ; by which, he hesitates 
not to say, that all difficulties in this case may be resolved. He 
observes, — " Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult 
to decide, in particular constructions, whether an adjective or an 
adverb ought to be used. A few observations on this point may 
serve to inform their judgment and direct their determination. 
They should carefully attend to the definitions of the adjective 
and the adverb : and consider, whether in the case in question, 
quality or manner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective 
is proper-, in the latter, an adverb" 

The advice afforded by Mr. M. to " young persons," in order 
to enable them to determine the proper application of an adjec- 
tive or adverb, is, so far, excellent; yet strange to perceive — 
it seems not to have had virtue sufficient to restrain its author 
from misconception on this occasion. His example runs thus, 
" They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed." 
This, he has attempted to correct, by saying, that the word in 



SYNTAX. 147 

italicks should be solitary. While examining the amendment 
proposed by Mr. Murray, in this instance, we shall adopt the 
advice which he offers to the consideration of youth; and, we 
therefore take leave to inquire, whether the persons to whom 
his illustration alludes were wandering about in a quality, or, 
in a manner? None, we are persuaded, will deny, that "they 
were wandering about" in the latter : and, none, we are equally 
satisfied, will hesitate to acknowledge the failure of Mr. M.'s 
attempt at correction. The sentence, when properly written, w T ill 
read thus: — "They were seen wandering about solitarily and 
distressedly :" that is, in a solitary and distressed manner. 

Moreover, if we reflect on the method proposed by Mr. Mur- 
ray for discovering an adverb in a sentence, we must surprise, 
that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles : — 
" An adverb may be known by its answering to the question 
how?" The word how means, — in what manner 1 so that, if the 
inquiry be made, — "How were they wandering about 1 The 
correct answer will be, " solitarily and distressedly :" not " soli- 
tary and distressed;" as our author would contend. See page 114. 

Participial adjectives flow from verbs, as their sources : thus, in 
the examples, " He is a finished gentleman ;" u This is polished 
marble ;" we perceive, that the words in italicks arise from the 
verbs to finish and to polish: however, the ensuing examples ap- 
pear to furnish instances of insuperable exception to the universal 
applicability of this remark : — " He is a talented man ;" " She is 
a good natured woman ;" "James is self opinionated ;" " He is 
broken hearted." We have no such verbs as to talent, to nature , 
to opinionate, to heart : neither have we independent adjectives of 
this class, so as to authorize their general introduction and usage. 
We therefore conclude, that such words have been, of necessity, 
obtruded, to supply defective phraseology in this point : and, that 
thus, our language has submitted to the reception of an acceptable 
solecism, by suffering those words to perform the qualifications 
peculiar to adjectives. Circumstanced is also of this class. 

11. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, and 
neither, agree with nouns or pronouns of the singular number 
only ; and consequently require verbs of assimilated construction ; 
as, "The king and the pretender fight, each for his cause;" 
" Every man judges of his situation;" " A new century begins 



348 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

every hundred years.;" that is, " every one hundred years:" 
" Either John or James has my book ;" " Neither of them has a 
claim to it." 

Numerous errors have been committed in the use of those 
words, by our most distinguished writers; and, are hourly being 
committed in familiar conversation. A few examples may be 
necessary to caution the learner: " For some time the fate of 
either nation seemed uncertain." Goldsmith. Hist. Rome. Chap. 
14. " Each nation." " Every class* of society has its cant of 
lamentation, which is understood by none but themselves." Ram- 
bler. No. 128. " But Us self." Every class and order of mankind 
have joys and sorrows of its own :" — " Of their own." 

On this point, Mr. Murray seems to have inculcated an error. 
In the sentence, " Every town and village were burned ; every 
grove and tree were cut down;" he says, "the language should 
be, 'was burned, and was cut down.'" In each clause of this sen- 
tence, we have two nominatives, connected by a copulative con- 
junction: consequently, the verbs should remain as in the original 
construction. (See Syntax of Sub. Rule II. Page 131.) To argue, 
as some grammarians do, that the word every may be applied 
separately to each noun ; and, that therefore, we may justifiably 
write, " Every man and woman was numbered ;" that is, " Every 
man was numbered ; and every woman was numbered ;" would 
be, not only to deprive the conjunction of its connective quality, 
but also, to involve the cause of grammar in unceasing difficul- 
ties ; and ultimately threaten the subversion of every principle on 
which reason seems to be founded : inasmuch, as that such theory 
would authorize the use and consequent tendency of the following 
language, than which, none is more repugnant to common sense : 
thus, — if, instead of saying, " One man and one woman are two 
persons," we say, "One man and one woman is two persons:" 
that is, " One man is two persons ; and one woman is two per- 
sons:" (an unavoidable construction under the premised specu- 
lation) consequently, " One man and one woman are four 
persons !" 

Mr. Murray thus makes an application of the word each to 
what he is pleased to denominate singular verbs : " The king of 
Israel, and Jehosaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne." 
This indeed, is accounting but feebly for its use in this instance. 



SYNTAX. 149 

Rules should be so illustrated with appropriate examples, as to 
preclude the possibility of errors in their applications : a circum- 
stance which has been neglected in the instances to which we 
have adverted. The cause of this defect in explanation, we pre- 
tend not to assign ; but must observe, (if the reader will excuse 
the quaintness of the phraseology) that it appears like " throwing 
dust into the eyes of the reader." 

All persons, acquainted with the structures of sentences, must 
be aware, that no confusion can arise, as to the agreement of a 
verb with its nominative ; whether such a nominative be of the 
singular or plural number, provided the verb is put in the passed 
tense: thus, — " The king of Israel sat on his throne :" — " The 
king of Israel and the king of Judah sat, each on his throne." 
Here, the verb has no change, in consequence of the different 
nominatives: but, Mr. M. (perhaps, seeing that the two nouns 
required the verb in what he denominates the plural form ; and, 
that the word each, accordingly to his rule, required the verb in 
what he terms the singular form,) determined to place the point 
at issue beyond the precincts of disputation, by constructing the 
sentence as we find it. We readily confess, this was the most 
convenient method which he could devise to repress the difficulty, 
if such he deemed it; but, we are far from approving of the 
scheme. The sentence, when properly presented for the learn- 
er's benefit, will read thus : — " The king of one nation, and the 
king of another sit, each on his throne:" that is, " They both sit, 
each (sits) on his (own) throne." 

A certain peculiarity is observable, by a different position of 
the adjective, which we shall here notice. In the phrases, " The 
king's former ministry;" — " The former king's ministry;" we 
perceive no alteration in the words; and, apparently, but little 
in the construction; yet, no sentences convey more different 
meanings. The first means, — " The previous ministry of a cer- 
tain king :" The second, — " The ministry of a king who reigned 
at a time previous to the other." 

Many words have been misrepresented by most, if not by all of 
our Lexicographers ; particularly verbs, adjectives, and particles 
of various kinds : each of which, we shall notice in its proper 
place, as we proceed. The word worth has been represented as 
an adjective, when it signifies equality in value ; as, " My cane 
13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is worth a shilling." This, we apprehend, is a mistake. The 
word worth, in the above example, is put in apposition to the 
word shilling ; and certainly, an adjective can, in no sense, be- 
come the efficient substitute or representative of a noun. This 
will clearly appear by the following position : — " My cane is 
worth or value for a shilling ;" or, " The worth or value of my 
cane is a shilling." If what has been advanced be not sufficiently 
comprehensible, the following position will dissipate every doubt : 
— " My cane is a shilling's worth." In this instance, the word 
shilling is governed in the possessive case by the word worth ; a 
consequence that could not ensue, if the latter were not a noun. 
But, should the objection be raised, — that by transposition, we 
have changed the original structure of the sentence : — if so, the 
most convincing proof of the propriety of our remark remains to 
be exhibited : — " My cane is the worth ofz shilling." This form 
indispensably proves the word in question to be a noun. See 
Syntax of Part. Rule I. Note 1. 

,The words means and amends, though formerly used in the 
singular, as well as in the plural number, are now, by polite 
writers, restricted to the latter. Our most distinguished modern 
authors say, " by this means" as well as, " by these means" — " By 
this grant, they made amends for his loss." Addison. Thus, we 
perceive the absolute power which custom has over the best 
established principles of speech ; in causing plural nouns to asso- 
ciate and agree with adjective pronouns of a singular construc- 
tion. An exception is however observable, for we find the word 
mean properly employed to denote mediocrity or intervention : 
thus Blair, in speaking of style : — " There should be always a 
mean observed." " Mean while, the danger hourly increased." 
Swift. " Tale of a Tub." 

The indefinite adjective pronoun all is forcibly employed after 
a number of qualities or conditions; as, "Pride, vanity, petu- 
lance, deceit, all concurred to render him odious to those who 
were formerly his friends." " The prevalence of fashion, the 
influence of example, the desire of applause, and the dread of 
censure, all obstruct the natural tendencies of the mind, and check 
the fancy in its first efforts to break forth into experiments of ca- 
price." Ram. 

The general position of adjectives is, before the nouns which 



SYNTAX. 151 

they qualify; yet, instances occur, in which they follow: as in 
poetry, or inverted sentences ; as, " The man is wise who fears 
the Lord :" that is, " He is a wise man, &c." Other cases of a 
similar nature prevail : however, they arise merely from varia- 
tions or transpositions of simple sentences. On some occasions, 
where the adjective takes the lead in the phrase, much strength is 
given to expression ; as, " Great and wonderful are thy ways, O 
God!" 

12. Adjectives which are, in some sense, characteristick of the 
import of those nouns to which they are occasionally prefixed, 
are little else than tawdry superfluities ; and should therefore be 
rejected : as, " Excellent virtues, domineering tyrants, bad vices, 
pleasing beauties, alluring pleasures." Mr. Cobbett has intro- 
duced an exceptionable instance of this nature : " We might 
(say may) with justice insist on perfect correctness." Cobbett's 
E. Gram. Letter 17. Correctness does not admit of degrees of 
perfection. The phrases, " most excellent," as used by Doctor 
Blair, in his 19th lecture ; and " quite wrong," as employed by 
Murray, are also censurable. 

r 

An ellipsis of the adjective thus occurs : " An excellent man 
and woman; that is, " An excellent man, and an excellent wo- 
man ;" " A fine house and garden ;" that is, " A fine house 
and a fine garden." 



Syntax of Pronouns. 

RULE I. 

Pronouns are generally employed to supply the 
places of Nouns, and should agree with them, as their 
antecedents, in gender and number ; as, " This is a 
person to whom I am grateful ;" "Lying is a vice 
which noble minds abhor ;" u The hypocrite and ex- 
tortioner shall meet their reward ;" M A virtuous woman 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

will receive the reward of her prudence, in the esteem 
of her family." 

To elucidate the contents of this rule, nothing further will be 
necessary than to observe, that we cannot with propriety say, 
" This is a person to which I am grateful :" neither can we say, 
" Lying is a vice who :" nor, " The hypocrite and extortioner 
shall meet his reward." The ensuing error is from Mr. Mur- 
ray : — " The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot 
be protracted." 

No word but a noun, or one which operates as such, can con- 
stitute a nominative case. For this reason, a personal pronoun 
becomes a nominative, though a relative does not ;* as it admits 
of no variation to denote number, person, or gender. 

The introduction of this remark arises from a conviction of 
the impropriety attendant on the theory of Mr. Murray, on this 
subject. Throughout the many editions of his grammar, we find 
the following erroneous observations still maintained: namely, 
" The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, and the 
verb agrees with it accordingly:" and, — "The relative is the 
nominative to the verb, when no nominative comes between it 
and the verb ; as, * The master who taught us.' " 

That relatives are of no particular number, person, or sex, 
maybe perceived, by their simultaneous agreement with nouns 
or pronouns of different persons and genders, whether of singular 
or plural construction: as, "The man who walks;" "The men 
who walk:" "The tree which falls;" "The trees which fall;" 
" / who move;" " They who move;" " She who loves ;" " He who 
loves." 

In each of these cases, we perceive a continual variation in 
the antecedent and verb, while the relative remains invariably 
the same : a convincing proof, that no agreement exists between 
the relative and its antecedent, with regard to number, person, or 



* A relative is said to be in the nominative, possessive, or objective 
case, only so far as it relates to a noun or personal pronoun, which, if put 
in its place, would be in one of those cases. 



SYNTAX. 153 

gender. And, with respect to the latter assertion, which main- 
tains a relative to be a nominative to a verb, none is more 
groundless. 

Were we to enter on a particular investigation of this sub- 
ject, we could show, as, in part, we did, that no relative can 
become a nominative to a verb ; however, as such an investiga- 
tion would be more curious than useful, we shall, for the present, 
content ourselves with the ensuing simple pfcoof: — We have 
an acknowledged principle in the English language, and, we 
apprehend, in all others, that the nominative of a sentence is 
discovered by its answering to the question, Who? or, What? 
Mr. Murray's example, in this instance, runs thus: — "The 
master who taught us." Now, if the inquiry be made, " Who 
taught usl" the direct and proper answer will be, — " The mas- 
ter ;" whilst, accordingly to Mr. M., the who will be that which 
taught us, — not the master! 

The truth is, — those persons who suppose that a relative can 
be a nominative to a verb, have not duly considered its use: 
which is, to prevent the repetition of the antecedent, by referring 
to it : and consequently to form, in idea, a new nominaiive :* 
which virtually must be the case, when the ellipsis which the 
sentence admits is introduced : Thus,— " The trees which were 
planted are useful," is equivalent to, — " The trees which (trees) 
were planted," &c. Here, the verb were agrees with the new or 
ideal nominative, (trees,) but, not with the relative. See Syntax 
of Verbs. Rule II. Remarks to Note 16. 

From what has been urged on this point, the learner must 
perceive the inconsistency of imputing to a relative the proper- 
ties of a nominative : as, in all sentences of a like construction 
to that of which we have been treating, the agents or actors 
should be a who, a which, a that, and sometimes a what! 

1. A singular anomaly has been obtruded on our language, 



* The young learner should understand, that the nominative and ante- 
cedent are not always the same. The antecedent is a leading or princi- 
pal noun or subject, generally placed in the previous part of the sentence ! 
and may be in the objective case, as well as in the nominative. See Syn- 
tax of Verbs. Rule II. Note 16. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by means of the introduction of those improperly compounded 
words himself and themselves, so frequently met in writings of 
every description. We deny their justified existence. Self sig- 
nifies one's own person, — is a detached and independent noun, — 
and consequently requires not to be commixed with any word 
whatsoever. If, therefore, these assertions be admitted, and, that 
the objectionable constructions be tolerated, we may, with as much 
propriety, write him-own-person, as himself. And, if the ex- 
pressions, " He, himself did it ;" " They, themselves, performed 
it ;" be pure and grammatical ; why not, on the same principles, 
"I, meself did it;" "Thou, theeself performed it;" " We, us- 
selves, saw it f* Yet, each of these phrases is invariably written, 
"I, myself — Thou, thyself — We, ourselves:" and consequently 
those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively, 
should be written, — he, his self; — she, her self; — it, its self; — 
ye or you, your selves ; — they, their selves . See Etymology of 
Poss. Adj. Pronouns, page 61. 

2. The word what is often improperly employed by some of 
our most eminent English writers ; as, " We know few, but 
what have a sufficiency of intellectual powers to perceive the 
lolly of vice." That it is here superfluously introduced, the en- 
suing construction will fully evince: — "We know few, who 
have not a sufficiency of," &c. The expression, — " Kis writ- 
ings were all good, except what treated of politicks ;" would have 
been better thus, — "except those ivhich treated of politicks." 
" He cannot be persuaded, but what you have acted improperly." 
Swift. " that you have acted properly," would have been pref- 
erable. 

3. A personal pronoun, as the substitute of a noun, cannot, 
with propriety, be employed in the same member of the sentence 
with the noun which it is designed to represent. We cannot 
therefore say, " My father, he lives in London ;" " My sister, she 
knows her duty;" " The scholars, they improve quickly;" "The 
virtuous, though esteemed by God, they are not without occa- 
sional troubles." In these examples, the words, — he, she, and 
they are unnecessarily introduced. The following phrase is 
faulty in this particular : "To expunge faults, where there are 
no excellencies, it is a useless task." Rambler, No. 139. 

As we are here treating of the applications of personal pro- 



SYNTAX. 155 

nouns, we shall introduce a few examples of their improper 
uses. For this purpose, we have consulted Mr. Cobbett's gram- 
mar of the English language ; in which, we find the following 
prudent admonition: — "Never write a personal pronoun with- 
out duly considering what noun it will, upon a reading of the 
sentence, be found to relate to. There must be a noun, expressed 
or understood, to which the pronoun clearly relates, or you will 
not write sense." 

To what extent Mr. C. has conformed to the advice which he 
proposes, in order to avoid error, we feel ourselves justified to 
inquire : previously taking leave to remind the reader, that the 
first of these sentences (quoted) contains an error in point of 
style : namely, that of placing the preposition at the conclusion of 
the sentence. See Syntax of Prepositions. 

The admonition introduced arises from a remark made by 
Mr. Cobbett, on the commentaries of Judge Blackstone, and is 
as follows : — " We may guess at the Judge's meaning ; but, we 
cannot say, that we know what it is : we cannot say, that we are 
certain whose life or death he is speaking of." 

In the grammar of Mr. C, and, but a few paragraphs pre- 
vious to the portion from which the passage under exami- 
nation is selected, we find rather an uncourteous attack on 
Doctor Blair (yet, indeed, not altogether unjustifiable) for an 
error of similar import to that of which we propose to convict 
Mr. Cobbett: who very properly censures the language of the 
doctor, for referring to Aristotle's Rhetorick, through the medium 
of the personal pronoun he. 

Those who lay down arbitrary marks, by which they may fear- 
lessly steer through the channel of danger, should cautiously 
launch into the ocean of accidents ; lest their beacons be lost to 
the view, and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction, 
as a consequence of their neglect. However, Mr. C. has fully 
done so, in the present instance. The expression, — " The 
Judge's meaning" is consistently represented by the pronoun it ; 
but, nothing can justify our author, in designating it a he : for, 
as the neuter pronoun properly refers to these words, — evidently, 
a pronoun which is invariably employed to denote the masculine 
gender, must be improperly applied, when referring to the same 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

expression. Again, (page 123) " Administration of common 
justice was full upon the Judge's ear; down he clapped was y &c." 
This loose and indefinite application of words authorizes the just 
remark, that " the Judge's ear" wrote, (as is intended to be de- 
tailed by the word clapped) a circumstance which, if true, may 
plausibly countenance the necessity, as well as propriety, of 
calling " the Judge's ear" a he. 

Indeed, if the theory of Mr. Cobbett were admitted, we could 
scarcely read a page of his English Grammar that would not be 
found liable to the errors which we have been describing : for, 
the reader will recollect what was formerly noticed on this head ; 
namely, his having maintained the phrases, " Richard's hat"' 
and "the hat of Richard/ 7 to be s)^nonymous; and the latter 
Richard to be in the possessive case, as well as the former. Ac- 
cordingly, — " The authority of Doctor Johnson" must be equiva- 
valent to, " Doctor Johnson? s authority" which Mr. C, in page 
142, takes leave to denominate a he. 

Finally, — to show the inconsistency of our author's theory, in 
this instance, we shall extract the following assertion: (page 127.) 
" When I, in the Etymology and Syntax, as relating to the rela- 
tive pronouns, speak of relatives as being in the nominative case, 
I mean, that they relate to nouns or to personal pronouns which 
are in that case. The same observation applies to the other cases." 

This is a mistake, as has been elsewhere shown; because a 
relative, in any of the cases, may relate to a noun or pronoun of 
a different case ; as, " I love him who obliges me." However, 
allowing Mr. C. to be correct, we shall soon witness the extra- 
vagant and unmeaning result. In page 109, he says, " We are 
not to regard, as a reason, the example of Milton, who has com- 
mitted many hundreds of errors." 

Now, granting the propriety of Mr. Cobbett's system, this sen- 
tence, which, in its self, is faultless, should be written, — " the 
example of Milton, whose has committed," &c : language than 
which, none could be more strange. In truth, few of our English 
writers, however eminent, have been free from the error which 
has been described. 

4. The pronoun it, respecting the misuse of which Mr. Cobbett 
appears much dissatisfied, shall engross our next consideration; 



SYNTAX. 157 

— " The word it," says he, " is the greatest troubler that I know 
of in language. It is so small and convenient, that few are care- 
ful enough in using it. Writers seldom spare this word. When- 
ever they are at a loss for a nominative or an objective to their 
sentence, (say, for nominatives or objectives to their sentences) 
they, without any ceremony, clap in an it." He concludes, — 
" Never put an it upon paper without thinking well of what you 
are about. When I see many its in (say on) a page, I always 
tremble for the writer"- 

What our author has advanced on this point, would, on a re- 
perusal of his book, seem to have been rather hastily expressed ; 
or, for the purpose of exciting, in others, this trepidation with 
which he so sympathetically compassionates them ; as, perhaps, 
no writer more frequently indulges in what he designates, u the 
pressing of poor imfortunate it into improper service," than he 
does. Nor are we prepared to say, whether, after a few quota- 
tions, we shall have more occasion to subdue risibility, than to 
exercise a tremulous motion for the fate of the endeavor which 
is to reconcile the theory and practice of our author. 

The following passage is cited from the 109th paragraph, and 
62nd page of his E. Grammar : — " When the love of contraction 
came to operate on such verbs as to burst and to light, it found 
such a clump of consonants already at the end (say ends) of the 
words, that it could add none. It could not enable the organs 
even of English speech, to pronounce bursfd, lighted. It there- 
fore made short work of it, and dropping the last syllable alto- 
gether, wrote burst and light, in the past time and passive parti- 
ciple. But, is it not more harmonious, as well as more correct to 
say, — the bubble is almost bursted, than it is to say, the bubble is 
almost burst? And, as to hang, is it not better to say hanged 
than hung? c I will be hanged if I do,' is a common expression; 
and, is it not better than it would be to say, ' I will be hung if 
I dor" 

Was ever so useless a concatenation of its introduced before in 
so limited a portion of writing ! The four first are, we should 
v suppose, (by straining the laws of rhetorick a little) designed to 
refer to the leading nominative, "the love of contraction" The 
last of these, we are informed, " made short work of its self; (if 
we interpret correctly) transformed its self into a writer; and 
14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wrote those words in question. The other four are so unmean- 
ingly employed, that ingenuity seems to be baffled, in attempting 
to trace their reference or application. Reader, what sayest thou 1 
Perhaps thou sayest, — " I tremble for the writer" 

In another part, we find Mr. C. treating of the word it ; and, 
while in the actual display of his acumen on the subject, writing 
in the following manner : — " Doctor Lowth has given it as his 
opinion, that it is not correct to place plural nouns," &c. 

Now, to what noun in the sentence do these its refer! Cer- 
tainly not to the Doctor, as he cannot be called an it. Neither, 
to the word opinion, as that construction would furnish no 
meaning : thus, Doctor Lowth has given his opinion, as his opin- 
ion. To what then do they refer! This incautious mode of 
writing does so badly accord with the advice, — " Never put an it 
upon paper without thinking well of what you are about," that 
we almost " tremble for the writer." 

To the vague and indefinite use of words, we are much averse ; 
and, we feel persuaded, that this improper use of the word it can, 
on every occasion, be avoided. Most writers who employ this 
word loosely, suppose, that it refers to some circumstance implied 
in the sentence. This supposition is, however, erroneous. In 
every instance, it must occupy the place of some noun, and con- 
sequently become its substitute. And, why submit to anomalies 
in language, when correct forms can be easily adopted ! Take 
the following sentences from Mr. Cobbett : — " Doctor Lowth has 
given it as his opinion, that it is not correct to do so and so :" 
Thus corrected : " In the opinion of Doctor Lowth to do so and 
so is not correct." Erroneous, — It is reason is to be your sole 
guide:" Correct, — " Reason is to be your sole guide." Erro- 
neous, — " It is not, in general, advisable to crowd relatives to- 
gether ; but it sometimes happens that it is done :" Correct, — 
" To crowd relatives together is not, in general, advisable ; yet 
writers sometimes do so." Erroneous, — " It is surprising, that 
the Doctor should have put such a passage on paper :" Correct, 
— " That the Doctor should have put such a passage on paper, is 
surprising." Erroneous, — " It is seldom, that those who lay down 
erroneous rules furnish us with proper examples :" Correct, — 
" Those who lay down erroneous rules, seldom furnish proper 
examples." 



SYNTAX. 159 

Most, perhaps all, of our grammarians have learnedly waded 
through the difficulties which they have conceived to attend the 
application of this pronoun ; by saying, that " it expresses the 
subject of an inquiry, — the state or condition of a person or 
thing, — the cause of an effect or event, &c." Mr. Cobbett is the 
most unequivocal writer whom we have consulted on this sub- 
ject: "Let us," says he, "take an example or two: * It is a 
frost this morning ;' ' It will rain to night ;' ' It will be fine to- 
morrow.' This," he observes, "is to say, — A state of things 
called frost exists this morning ; — a state of things called rain 
exists to-night j and to-morrow, — a state of things called fine 
weather." 

To speak with moderation on the futility of attempting to ob- 
trude such crude theory on the reasoning student is really diffi- 
cult. How easy to say, " "We have frost this morning;" " Frost 
prevails this morning:" " Rain will fall to-night:" To-morrow 
will be fine." 

5. This word is also frequently, but improperly, used with a 
noun or prononn denoting the masculine or feminine gender; 
as, " It was John, or, he who wrote to Mary ; but, it was Ellen, 
or, she who answered." The word it in this sentence, is put 
in apposition to the noun and pronoun representing persons. 
This is not only unnecessary, but manifestly improper. Thus 
corrected: — "John, or, he wrote to Mary; but, Ellen, or, she 
answered." 

6. This pronoun, as the substitute of one object, is sometimes 
improperly placed in apposition to a plural noun or pronoun. 
Thus Murray, — " It was the hereticks that first began to rail ;" 
" It is they that are the authors." 

Neglect of due attention in the using of pronouns has been 
productive of the most ludicrous mistakes. In Doctor Blair's 
second lecture, we read the following passage : — " In children, 
the rudiments of taste discover themselves very early, in a thou- 
sand instances : in their fondness for regular bodies, their ad- 
miration of pictures and statues, and imitations of all kinds ; 
and their strong attachment to whatever is new or marvellous." 

Though we easily conceive the meaning which the doctor 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

would impart, yet, unluckily, he does not say what he intended. 
The word children, to which he determined that the pronoun 
should refer, is in the objective case: and, as the sentence is 
constructed, cannot, with propriety, be considered the acting 
member which displays " the fondness for regular bodies," &c. 
— particularly, as the language states, that "the rudiments of 
taste discover themselves ; and even exhibit their mode of so 
doing : namely, in their fondness for regular bodies, — in their 
admiration of pictures and statues," &c. 

Doctor Goldsmith, — describing a battle between the Normans 
and the English, has the following sentence: — " The Normans 
began to fight with their cross-bows, which, at first, galled and 
surprised the English ; and, as their ranks were close, their ar- 
rows did great execution." Whose ranks were close 7 The 
English ranks, of course, were meant ; in consequence of the ■ 
closeness of which, the arrows of the Normans did great execu- 
tion. But, the pronoun their, which is marked in italicks, refers 
to the Normans ; and thus, a conclusion contrary to that which 
the writer intended must unavoidably be drawn : namely, that 
the reason for which the arrows of the Normans did great exe- 
cution was, in consequence of the closeness of their own ranks. 

7. A common error, to which many writers are disposed, is 
that of referring, by a plural pronoun, to a noun or pronoun of a 
singular construction. The numerous instances of defective ar- 
rangement which may be produced on this point, from authors 
of no inferior notoriety, would occupy pages: however, let the 
following one, extracted from Doctor Blair, suffice. From this 
author, if from any, we ought to expect correctness, in so simple 
a case : — "If one take a wrong method at first setting out, it will 
lead them astray in all that follows." Lecture 31. In this sen- 
tence, the word one signifies one person ; which the doctor sub- 
sequently treats as a plural noun, by ealling it them. The lan- 
guage would be correct, if written thus : — " If persons take a 
wrong method, it will lead them astray :" or, " If one take a 
wrong method, it will lead him or her astray." 

8. Mr. Murray, on the authority of his predecessors, objects 
to the use of the word those, at the commencement of a sen- 
tence; and says, it ought to be they. In general, the reverse 
would be correct: as, they is particular, — those,— promiscuous* 



SYNTAX. 161 

Indeed, distinctions so trivial, without differences of some mag- 
nitude, are too insignificant to merit attention; the one being 
as correct as the other, accordingly as circumstances require: 
and, when no injury is done to the sense, variety is not only ad- 
missible, but pleasing. Thus Johnson, — after frequently em- 
ploying the nominative pronoun (they) for the sake of variety, 
changes it to the denomstrative (those) ; as, " Those who have 
nothing within that can entertain them." Rambler. No. 6. How- 
ever, he does not observe uniformity in his mode of employing 
pronouns, as by the ensuing passages will appear : " To them 
who leave the publick places of resort in the full bloom of repu- 
tation, a rural triumph can give nothing equivalent." Rambler, 
No. 124. 

Perhaps no error, as far as grammar or sense is concerned, is 
more commonly committed, both by speakers and writers, than 
the one to which we have last adverted: and, yet, none more 
unpardonable in an author of distinction. The word them is a 
personal pronoun ; which, as was formerly remarked, can be 
employed as a substitute for a noun only. But, here, the doctor 
commences a paragraph with the above words, without reference 
to a previous or subsequent antecedent ; and, as the relative is 
no nominative, the drift of the sentence must be, " To them per- 
sons a rural triumph can give nothing equivalent." In this in- 
stance, we perceive a personal pronoun performing the office of 
a demonstrative. This is a gross impropriety. The language 
should be, " To those (persons)," &c. Again, — " Riches can- 
not easily be denied to them* who have something of greater 
value to offer in exchange." Rambler. No. 146. " This au- 
thority may be justly opposed, as it is apparently derived from 
them whom they endeavor to control." Rambler. No. 158. 
" Such examples as these, conferred by God on them who with- 
stood the multitude of evil doers, should often be present to our 
minds." Blair. 

Mr. Murray observes, — " Many persons make use of them 
instead of those; as, "Give me them books," instead of 'those 
books. 5 " He is, however, not pleased to afford further reason 



* When the noun has been once mentioned, the word them may af- 
terwards be properly applied, in referring to it ; as, " those persons whom 
he relieved are grateful for the attention paid to them." 

14* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for the correction of this expression, than that of learnedly in- 
forming the student, that " many persons" speak and write in- 
correctly ! From what has been hitherto said of pronouns, the 
learner will reflect, that when a noun is promiscuously pointed 
out, as in the above example, — a demonstrative, not a personal 
pronoun, must be used. To say, "Give me them books," is not 
better language, than to say, " I want him man," instead of " this 
or that man." See Etymology of Demonstrative Pronouns, 
page 62 ; and Syntax of Pronouns. Rule I. Note 3. 



, RULE II. 

No Relative can become a Nominative to a Verb; 
yet, a Relative, though referring to a Noun which is the 
Nominative in a sentence, may be governed in the Ob- 
jective Case, by a Verb or Preposition ; in consequence 
of the intervention of some explanatory words, in which 
another Nominative is introduced ; as, " Man, on whom 
his Creator has impressed his divine image, and whom 
we aknowledge to be peculiarly favored, should be the 
last whose province is to repine." 

The first relative in this example is under the government of 
the preposition on : therefore, no doubt can arise in the learner's 
mind with regard io the reception of the rule. But, with respect 
to the second, the government is not altogether so obvious. Here, 
the verb acknowledge governs whom, as will be clearly seen, by 
substituting a personal pronoun for the noun to which the rela- 
tive refers: — thus, "Man whom we acknowledge." Whom do 
we acknowledge? We acknowledge him. However, caution 
is necessary to be observed by the student, lest he run into error, 
by too scrupulous an adherence to the rule ; and, without exer- 
cising sufficient reflection: — "Man, whom, we are informed, 
has received the divine image of his Creator, and whom, we 
acknowledge, is peculiarly favored, should be the last to repine." 
In these places, the relative ought to be who, not whom : for the 
learner must perceive, that the expressions, we are informed, and, 



SYNTAX. 163 

we acknowledge, have no connection with the import of the sen- 
tence, being merely expletives ; and without which, the sentence 
will read as clearly as with them. And, though a nominative 
does come between the relative and the principal verb, yet, no 
government of the relative can ensue ; because, on examination, 
we perceive, that such a nominative is not the nominative of the 
verb, on which the relative depends. This will be evident, if we 
suppress the expletives, and place the relatives and the verbs, to 
which they are connected, close to each other: — thus, "Man, 
whom has received the divine image, and whom is favored" Who 
has received, and who is favored 1 He has received, and he is 
favored. Observe, — if the objective of the relative were correct, 
the answer would be, — " Him has received, and him is favored." 
See Note 6 to this Rule. 

" A Grammar of the English Language, — by the Rev. J. Sut- 
clifie," — has come under our inspection. Without attempting 
to depreciate its worth, or, to enrich our page with " the plunder 
of so much literary lore" as its author supposes it to contain, we 
shall simply quote the ensuing instances, as ones suited to the 
case of which we have been treating in the foregoing paragraph i 
— u The publick despise pawn-brokers, whom they take to be 
avaricious and sordid characters." " Several persons called, 
whom we took to be foreigners." " In these examples," says our 
grammarian, "the relative should be, who" 

Unfortunately the gentleman has strayed on this point. The 
sentences are grammatically correct as they stand. Supply the 
place of each relative with a personal pronoun, and the propriety 
of the existing structures will be instantly perceived. Whom do 
the publick take to be avaricious characters 1 The publick take 
them, — not they. Whom did we take to be foreigners 1 We took 
them. In our opinion, Mr. SutclirTe's critical sagacity would 
have been more advantageously employod, if directed otherwise, 
than to the subject of philology. 

1. Every relative, when convenience will permit, should be 
placed as nearly to its dependent noun or pronoun as possible ; 
so that it may readily point out its antecedent. Negligence, in 
this instance, is often productive of obscurity, to such a degree, 
as to render difficult to the comprehension, sentences which other- 
wise would be plain and intelligible. Take, as an example, the 



364 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

last written phrase, expressed in the following order: — " Negli- 
gence in this instance is often productive of obscurity to such a 
degree, as to render sentences difficult to the comprehension, 
which otherwise would be plain and intelligible. " In this latter 
form, the relative, grammatically refers to comprehension, and not 
to the word sentences, as designed; — thus, distorting the sense of 
the whole phrase. " Spain has, at length, assumed the attitude, 
as a free country, which becomes her dignity." Canning. 
Speeches. This should be, " Spain has. at length, assumed the 
attitude, which, as a free country, becomes her dignity:" or, 
11 Spain, as a free country, has at length assumed the attitude 
which becomes her dignity." " In the revisal of this poem which 
he died before he finished." Johnson's Life of AJcenside. This 
awkward sentence would be tolerable, if written, — "which he 
did not live to finish :" but perhaps better thus, " which he did not 
finish previously to his death." 

2. Inattention to the particular use and position of the relative, 
and to such particles as this and that, too frequently occurs among 
careless writers : as, when a reference is made, through the me- 
dium of those particles, to the meaning of some phrase ; or, to the 
drift of an entire sentence, instead of some particular antece- 
dent. However, a circumstance like this cannot always be well 
avoided; as, "Few are so devoid of discernment, as not to be 
able to appreciate the worth of religion : this is one, amongst 
many reasons, that it is so prevalent." In this period, the word this 
does not, neither could it be properly made to relate to any par- 
ticular noun ; but, to the whole tenor of the preceding sentence. 

The error in the following example is too obvious to es- 
cape common observation : — " The rich, the gay, and the li- 
centious, while floating with ease and splendor on the tide 
of prosperity, and hushed into torpitude, by the sweet scented 
incense of flattery and general approbation, are not alive to 
the miseries of others, who thus wallow in luxury and opu- 
lence." In consequence of the improper position of the rela- 
tive in this sentence, which otherwise is nobly constructed, we 
comprehend a meaning directly opposed to that which was in- 
tended: namely, that of representing persons in a state of misery, 
as wallowing in luxury and opulence. This misrepresentation 
might have been avoided, by placing the relative in the former 






SYNTAX. 165 

part of the sentence : Thus, — " The rich, the gay, &c. who wal- 
low in luxury, &c. are not alive to the miseries of others," &e. 

3. As relatives possess neither distinction nor difference, with 
regard to number, a difficulty sometimes presents its self, in dis- 
tinguishing the true antecedent ; as, " Aristotle was the preceptor 
of Alexander, the Great, whom we venerate as a man of powerful 
abilities." The relative may refer to Aristotle, or to Alexander. 
If we intend to the former, the ensuing construction will dissi- 
pate every doubt : — " Aristotle, whom we venerate, &c. was the 
preceptor of Alexander." If to the latter, a convenient adjust- 
ment of the position of the relative, and a slight alteration in the 
mode of expression, is all that appears necessary: as, " Alexan- 
der, whom we venerate, &c, was the pupil of Aristotle." Mr. 
Oobbett has noticed a sentence of nearly similar construction in 
the 35th No. of Dr. Johnson's Rambler : — " This determination 
led me to Metissa, the daughter of Chrysophilus, whose person 
Was, at least, without deformity." 

On this construction, Mr. C. is pleased thus to comment: — 
" The person of which of the twol Not of the old papa to be 
sure; and yet, this is what the words mean." This, we are 
obliged to say, is little better than hy 'per 'criticism of a petty order : 
for, in an expression thus moulded, the most ordinary capacity 
must perceive, that the phrase, " the daughter of Chrysophilus" is 
nothing else than a pleonasm, which may, and, indeed, ought to 
be, enclosed in a parenthesis ; a circumstance to which the Doctor 
directed too little attention throughout his writings, as must be 
manifest to every attentive reader of them. The person of Me- 
tissa is what is meant, and said to be without deformity. 

We sometimes find two relatives attached to each other in a 
sentence; as, "Who that possesses common sense could be an 
advocate for infidelity 1" We also find the relative that unavoid- 
ably employed in place of who or which: that is, when persons, as 
well as things become the antecedent ; as, " The prisoners and the 
provisions that were taken were indiscriminately devoured by 
those barbarians." Hist. N. Am. 

4. A nice division of those improperly compounded words 
whichsoever, howsoever, and whatsoever, has been adopted by all 
our modern writers of distinction; by means of the intervention 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of some word or phrase which is indispensably necessary towards 
the completion of the sense. Thus Johnson, — "Catch the gale 
of favor from what point soever it shall blow." Ram. No. I. 
" How little credit soever may be given to particular accusations. " 
Ram. 18. "Rhetorical rules, how just soever, are insufficient to 
form a good orator." Blair. Lect. 1. "On which side soever I 
turn my eyes." Translation of Hannibal 1 s Speech. 

5. When, through the medium of a relative, reference is made 
to a personal noun of multitude, which is restricted to the plural 
number, the invariable introduction of the personal relative is 
necessary: as, "The publick, whose judgment is, in general, 
correct, maintain," &e. But, in referring to a noun of this spe- 
cies, which admits of the common distinctions of singular and 
plural, the relative which should be employed; and, the personal 
pronoun (when necessarily introduced) must agree with it ac- 
cordingly; as, "The assembly which discussed the measure was 
unanimous in its decision." To say, " The assembly who dis- 
cussed," would be improper, as we may, with equal plausibility, 
employ he or she in referring to that word. The following exam- 
ple will dispel all doubt which may be entertained on the sub- 
ject: — "I was at the assembly, and it discussed the propriety of 
various measures:" not, he or she "discussed." If not in this, 
how can we, in any instance, refer by the personal relative and 
its necessary attendants to words thus circumstanced ! This word, 
and all others similarly situated and employed, merely denote the 
name of the assemblage, &c, — not the persons of whom it is 
composed. 

6. When a relative is interrogatively applied, the noun or pro- 
noun which is employed in the answer will be in the same case 
as the relative through which the query is proposed; as, "Who 
has my pen 1" "James, or he." " Whose paper is this ?" "Rich- 
ard's, oi his." "From whom did you get it?" "From John, or 
him." 

7. Those compounded words somehow, and somewhat, should, in 
all dignified compositions, be carefully avoided. Indeed, the pro- 
priety of their use and introduction is founded on no stronger 
basis than that of careless diction or whimsical innovation. The 
following sentences are censurable : — " There is no creature so 
obscure or low, who may not, by the strange and unaccountable 



SYNTAX. 167 

changes of human affairs, somehow or another become a useful 
friend or a troublesome enemy." Chesterfield. Letters to his 
Son. No. 293. "As the neuter verb partakes somewhat of the 
nature of the passive." Murray 's Gram. " This phrase seems to 
be someiahat defective." LowtKs Gram, page 111. The phrases, — 
in some way, — in some mariner, — in part, or partly, may be 
substituted with propriety and effect. 

8. When a noun and pronoun of apposition, and of different 
persons, become nominatives to the same verb, the relative and 
the verb to which they are connected may agree with either of 
them; as, " I am the person who receives most injuries from female 
loquacity." Swift. In this expression, the noun person is evi- 
dently the nominative to which the relative and verb refer : be- 
cause it is in the third person ; as, by the ensuing construction 
will appear : — "I am the person (which person or he) who receives 
most injuries." But, if the pronoun I were considered the nomi- 
native, the relative and verb should agree with it accordingly; as, 
"J am the person tvho receive most injuries:" that is, "7, who re- 
ceive most injuries, am the person." In truth, nothing but the 
sense, on the part of the reader, — or, the intention, on the part of 
the writer, can afford satisfactory determination in this particular. 

The compounded pronouns whoever, whomsoever, whatsoever, 
whichsoever, and whosoever, are subjected to a similar regimen, 
with respect to their cases, as the original words from which they 
are derived. 

We shall close our remarks on the various uses of the personal 
relative, with a few observations on the impropriety of placing it 
in the objective case, after the conjunction than. 

9. Bishop Lowth observes, — "The relative who, having refer- 
ence to no veib or preposition understood, but only to its antece- 
dent, when it follows than, is always in the objective case ; even 
though the pronoun, if substituted in its place, would be in the 
nominative." Mr. Murray has also countenanced this erroneous 
theory ; and gravely informs his readers, that it is a " remarkable" 
case. 

Misconception, on simple subjects, generally arises from in- 
cautious applications of the intellectual capabilities : but, if it 
may be said to admit of excess, we should not hesitate to pro- 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nounce this, — one of a superlative nature ; — " having reference 
to no verb or preposition !" — the most powerful reason that could 
be urged, to counteract his assertion: " John loves you more than 
me; 11 "He sent more by you than him;" are instances which 
demonstrate the propriety of placing an objective case after than, 
even if the relative were employed: as, "John loves you more 
than whom. ?" " He sent more by you than whom ? that is, more 
than he loves me, — more than he sent by him" Here, a govern- 
ment of the relative does occur, because it has reference to a 
verb and preposition alternately understood. But, in the in- 
stances produced by Lowth and Murray, no such government 
can exist : — " Alfred, than whom, a greater king never reigned :" 
" Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat." Trans- 
position of these sentences will instantly exhibit the errors: — 
" A greater king than Alfred never reigned:" — A greater king 
than who 1 "A greater king than he was." Observe the error 
by introducing the objective of the relative: " A greater king 
than whom % "A greater king than him was." See Note the 6th 
to this Rule. Add to this proof, — Conjunctions have no .govern- 
ment. This remark will serve for the other example. 

The ellipsis of the pronoun is thus employed : " He is a friend 
to justice and humanity:" that is, " He is a friend to justice, and 
he is a friend to humanity." " His wealth and influence were 
exerted:" that is, " His wealth and his influence," &c. The rela- 
tive is thus omitted: "This is the friend I esteem;" that is, 
" This is the friend v:hom I esteem." " That is a custom I ab- 
hor :" that is, " That is a custom which I abhor." 



Syntax of Verbs, 

RULE I. 

A Verb must vary its terminations, so as to agree 
with the nominative to which it is connected ; the first 
person singular of the Pronouns requiring the Verb in 
the same form, as when joined to a Plural Noun or Pro- 



SYNTAX. 169 

noun:* as, M I learn ;" " Thou art loved ;" " He writes ;" 
44 They learn." See page 69. 

The instances of erroneous language which may be exhibited 
on this occasion from speakers and writers of tolerable repute, 
would, we are persuaded, be sufficiently numerous to fill volumes : 
however, we shall, for the present, confine our remarks to the writ- 
ings of those who have been eminent for critical sagacity ; and 
who, with little exception, have been held up to posterity, not only 
as the most powerful potentates of English composition; but, 
even as infallible models for universal imitation, in point of 
grammatical accuracy. 

" Though we may say, a variety of effects belong to the same 
cause." Blair. Lecture 22. "belongs." " By degrees, a certain 
number of incontestible propositions are established." Rambler. 
No. 151. " is established." " The greatest part of human grati- 
fications approach so nearly to vice." Rambler. No. 160. "ap- 
proaches." " A great number of our words are derived from the 
Latin." Blair. Lecture 9. "^derived." " Among all nations, 
the original stock of words which they received from their an- 
cestors, remain as the foundations of their speech." Blair. Lec- 
tured, "remains." "The greater part of human kind speak 
and act wholly by imitation." Ram. 146. "speaks and acts" 
" From anger, protracted into malevolence, and exerted in re- 
venge, arises many of the evils to which the life of man is ex- 
posed." "arise." " This is an argument, in which is contained 
many demonstrative proofs of the divinity of Christ." Tillotson, 
"are contained." 

The two last examples are cases in which the sentences are in- 
verted ; by which means the student may be misled : as, in all 
probability, he may suppose the former parts of the sentences to 
contain the nominatives. But, reflection will inform him, that the 
natural order of each phrase requires the following, or a similar 
position: — "Many of the evils to which the life of man is exposed, 
arise from anger," &c. This will be evident, if we inquire for 



* The verb to be forms an exception to this rule. Its conjugation is 
11 / am," not " / are ;" as is expressed (so far as the verb is concerned) 
with the plural nouns and pronouns. 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the nominative, and ask, — What arise ? The answer will be, — 
Many evils. This remark will illustrate the other example, 
which we now suppose the learner competent to understand, 
without further explication. 

" What an English taste is most apt to censure in some French 
writers, are the want of fervor, strength, and the natural language 
of passion:" " is the w r ant." In this sentence, the word want is the 
nominative : and fervor , strength, and natural language, are in 
the objective case. " Though thou have been requested to give 
thy aid ; yet, thou may justly withhold thy assent :" " hast been,' 7 
and u mayest withhold." " The texture of the cloths were fine :" 
" was fine." " When a number of words come in between the 
discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error." Cobbett. 
Eng. Gram. 17th Letter. Alas ! how unhappily has the author 
verified the propriety of this cautionary assertion in the result, 
Here is a case, perfectly analogous to the one which induces the 
admonition to the learner ; and yet, in consequence of the inter- 
vention of those words, by which the caution is incited, he writes 
bad grammar ! The sentence should be, " When a number of 
words comes in." The word number (which has for its plural 
numbers) is the nominative of the sentence: — not the noun words, 
which is governed in the objective case by the preposition of. 

1. No sentence can be constructed without a verb, expressed 
or implied : nor can a verb exist, without reference to a nomina- 
tive case similarly presented : except w^hen in the infinitive mood. 
And, though w r e say, " The smoother the surface, the deeper the 
water;" yet, a verb is plainly understood: because we mean, 
" The smoother the surface is, the deeper the water is." 

The following passages, selected from Doctor Johnson, are ex- 
amples of wrong construction suited to the tenor of the latter part 
of this note: — " I had my regard turned wholly on myself, nor 
can recollect any thing earlier than praise and admiration." 
Rambler. 130. " nor can / recollect." " Though rest and compo- 
sure are my peculiar joy, am worn out and harrassed to death 
with journeys." Ram. 30. " / am worn out." " The greater 
part of students is not born with abilities to construct systems, or 
advance knowledge : nor can have any hope beyond that of be- 
coming intelligent hearers." Ram. 191. "nor can they have 
any hope." 



SYNTAX. 171 

2. A nominative should not be placed before a verb to which it 
is already legitimately and sufficiently understood ; as it tends to 
make language stiff in its relation, and abrupt in its connection. 
The following sentence, extracted from the 8th Note to Mr. Mur- 
ray's 5th Rule of Syntax, is censurable in this point :— ■" When 
the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does not 
refer to the person :" " and does not refer :" or, by a repetition of 

the adverb, — " and when it does not refer." 



In Mr. Cobbett's 19th Letter on English Grammar, we are in- 
formed, that there never can he (the italicks are Mr. C.'s) a verb 
without a nominative case, expressed or understood. A little re- 
jection w 7 ould have taught the writer to be less precipitate in his 
decision. A verb in the infinitive mood has no nominative, ex- 
pressed or understood. For example, — "I Will compel them to 
pay me." In this sentence, the pronoun /is the nominative to the 
verb will compel^ while the verb to pay is destitute of any nomina- 
tive whatsoever. 



RULE II. 
« 

Every Active Verb must govern an Objective Case, 
expressed or implied ; as, u I love him ; " He fears 
me ; n " We know them ;" " Charity moves us to -pity;" 
u Him, the commonwealth chose." 

The general position of ever)'- verb, in simple sentences, is after 
the agent or actor : and the noun or pronoun which is the object 
of the action conveyed by the verb must be in the objective case ; 
as, " I love Jdm. n Here, the pronoun i, or the person w r hich it 
represents, is the actor : love is the verb or attribute which con- 
veys the action on the pronoun him ; w T hich is consequently in the 
objective case, as being the receiver or object of the action. But, 
if the sentence be inverted, by employing the verb in a passive 
form, the word which was previously in the objective case, will 
now be in the nominative ; and, the pronoun /, which was then 
the nominative, will be placed in the objective ; as, " He is loved 
by m*" The reason is obvious. In the former case, the action 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is represented, as immediately falling on an object, which does 
receive it : while, in the latter case, we merely nominate such an 
object, as the receiver of the action that was contained in me ; or, 
rather, in the noun which it represents : which is still the actor, 
though placed, by the passive position of the sentence, in the ob- 
jective case, — governed by the preposition by. 

1. Although certain neuter verbs imply action, they do not gov- 
ern objective cases : and, though, in some instances, they admit 
objective cases after them, yet, not they, but prepositions (under- 
stood) possess the government. Thus, — to walk is a neuter verb, 
and implies action : and, in the phrase, " I walked a mile," takes 
the word " mile" apparently, as an object after it. But, reflection 
will show, that an implied preposition has the government ; as, 
" I walked over ; or, through the space of a mile." 

Mr. Murray asserts, that, " In the phrases, ' To dream a 
dream ;' f To live a virtuous life ;' ' To run a race ;' ' To 
walk the horse ;' f To dance the child ;' the verbs certainly as- 
sume a transitive form, (say, transitive forms) and may not, in 
these cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs :" — that 
is, active verbs. 

This, we take leave to observe, is a mistake, arising from too 
hasty a determination on this subject. We deny, that verbs of a 
particular class can be thus writhed or tortured into different uses 
and significations. Let these phrases be rigorously examined, 
and we shall perceive, that the construction, though tolerated, is 
erroneous : or, in other words, that the English language admits 
no such forms of expression as, " To dream a dream ;" "To 
walk the horse ;" " To dance the child." Let us divest these 
words of their primitive states, and apply them to practical use, 
in connection with nominatives. Thus, — " I dreamed a dream," 
signifies, that U I dreamed of a circumstance or transaction which 
bears the name of a dream" If this be not sufficiently intelli- 
gible, we shall take the other examples : — " I walk the horse." 
" / vjalk" means, that / (my self) am engaged in the perform- 
ance of the action of walking, in my own person; whilst the 
meaning which Mr. Murray must affix to this phrase is, that 
/ cause the horse to walk, without any, or the least refer- 
ence to myself; though the language expressly says, " I walk" 
11 I dance the child," has, for its import, — The child is put into 



SYNTAX. 173 

a motion called dancing, by me ; but, the contrary is apparent : — 
11 1 dance," signifies, that / (my self) dance , to the complete exclu- 
sion of the child. Again, — if the theory of Mr. Murray be ad- 
mitted, which, for the sake of argument and elucidation, we 
will, for a moment, grant; — the expression, "I walked a mile," 
must signify, that / put the mile into motion, and caused 
it to walk : and, consequently, the sentence, " He rode several 
miles," must mean, that the miles received motion, and, that he 
rode (say, on) them* That the propriety of these remarks admits 
not. of doubt, may be seen by the following fact : Every active 
verb requires an object which will make sense, though ever so re- 
mote from, or inconsistent with, the expressed assertion: thus, " I 
love poison ;" " He courts misery ;" " We detest justice ;" " We 
admire slavery;" — while those verbs which Mr. Murray pro- 
nounces transitive, will not receive objects to correspond with 
them in a similar manner. For, although we erroneously say, 
" I walk a mile;" "He rides a horse;" "I dance the child;" 
" He came home :" we cannot, with propriety, say, " I walk 
town;" " He rides the country;" "I dance musick;" "He 
came the city:" — the word to, or some other preposition, being 
understood to each noun. What proof more convincing, of the 
impropriety of considering those verbs active ! 

§£jf While treating on this subject, we may not impertinently 
observe, that nouns which are expressive of significations similar 
to the import of the neuter verbs to which they are attached seem 
to occupy the positions of objects to such verbs, and therefore to 
be influenced by them. To suppose thus, is, however, erroneous. 
To these, like many other unjustifiable modes of phraseology, our 
hearing being long familiarized, we become easily reconciled ; 
and consequently, unsuspicious of their incongruity: hence, con- 
trary to rule, as well as to reason, we incautiously permit and 
employ such expressions as, "I leap the horse;" "He trots the 
poney ;" " We spoke the ship ;" ' ; They neared the land ;" " We 
laughed him to scorn ;" &c. To exemplify the propriety of this 
remark, we need only observe, in the first instance, that the horse 
leaps, — not /,- who am but the cuuse of that action : in the second, 
that the poney trots, not he ; who, while the poney trots, may sit 



* fcCi 3 * The same verb, while employed under a similar construction and 
regimen, must have a similar influence and effect. 

15* 



174 ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 

or ride on him : as, in the next place, " We spoke to the ship ;" 
or rather to its occupants, &c. In fine, no verb is active in any 
sense, or under any construction, that will not, in every sense, per- 
mit the objective case of a personal pronoun after it, and its 
present participle.* We therefore improperly employ neuter 
verbs in an active (and consequently in a passive) sense : and, 
instead of saying, — "We laugh him;" "We look him;" 
we should say, "We laugh at him;" "We look to or for 
him," &c. To say, " I walk him ;" " We dance him;" is not 
better language than, "I wink him;" "I sleep him;" "We 
grow them;" "We speak them." See Etymology of Verbs, 
page 65. 

2. The English language contains so many verbs which, in one 
sense, bear an active, and, in another, a neuter signification ,t 
that a writer cannot, at all times, easily avoid errors in their 
applications. Doctor Johnson, so justly celebrated for his English 
dictionary, and, for his knowledge of the language in general, 
has, notwithstanding, committed many oversights, in this parti- 
cular: — "The roads of science are narrow, so that those who 
travel them must either meet or follow one another." Bam. 121. 
" Travel over, or through them." " One who had all the excel- 
lencies which she herself could boast." Ram. 130. " Of which 
she could boast." " Those who can please themselves with the 
enjoyment of that wealth which they never permit others to par- 
take." Ram. 28. " Of which they never partake." " The con- 
templation of splendor which he never must partake." Ram. 
163. " Of which he never must partake." The word partake, 
signifies take part : and, as we cannot say, that we take part a 
thing, neither can we partake a thing. " The words when and 
where may be called adverbial conjunctions, because they parti- 
cipate the nature of adverbs and conjunctions." Murray. 
"Participate of" 



* How amusing to hear an advocate of this theory say, " I am dreaming 
him;" "He is living or dying my sake;" "I am running him;" "He is 
walking me ;" " I am dancing this lady or gentleman :" constructions which 
are unavoidable from principles hitherto universally admitted. See Syntax 
of Participle. Rule I. Page 189. These should be, "I am dreaming of 
him ;" " He is living or dying for my sake ;" &c. 

t Few o( our Dictionary writers seem to understand the distinction. 



SYNTAX. 175 

f^To distinguish the active from the neuter construction of 
verbs, we may remark, that while the former are immediately 
followed by objects, the latter require the intervention of prepo- 
sitions, so as to point out the objects to which they are directed. 
Thus, to treat, as was formerly observed, when it means to 
accommodate or entertain, is active; as, "I treat him:" But, 
when it signifies to deliberate or disconrse, it is neuter; as, "I 
treat of the subject." The positions which the following neuter 
verbs demand will fully illustrate this remark: — " He disposed of 
his property;" " She thinks of ihe subject ;" " We approve of his 
conduct;" " They flee from danger." "He laughs at misfor- 
tune ;" " They smile on success." To this mode of discovery 
may be added another, equally conclusive : — Every verb which 
is exclusively neuter, will, when practically employed, make sense 
in its self; as, "I live; he walks; we sleep; he thinks; they 
exist:" Active verbs will not complete the sense, till joined to 
objects ; as, " I love him ;" " He smites me ;" " We know them ;" 
M He fears us." 

3. Every active verb may become passive, by means of the verb 
to be : Thus, to esteem, is an active verb ; as, u \ esteem him:" it 
is passive ; as, "He is esteemed." But, a neuter verb can, in no 
instance, take a passive signification. For example, — To muse, 
or think, is neuter ; as, " I think of a subject ;" but, it should, in 
no case, receive the construction or import of a passive verb: 
because a passive verb is employed solely for the purpose of 
describing an action which is, has been, or will be, received or 
endured, by some object, exterior to the agent of the action: 
while, in a neuter verb, the effect is confined within the subject, 
and is not conveyed to an object. We cannot therefore properly 
say, u I am mused;" " He was thought ;" " We were laughed ;" 
" He was arrived :" though we frequently hear such expressions. 
Thus, Barclay's dictionary on the word Elizabeth : " The Pope 
was desirous of sending a nuncio to England who was arrived in 
Flanders." This should be, "Jiad arrived." The expression, 
" was arrived," would imply, that another person arrived the 
nuncio : or, in other language, that the nuncio received or endured 
the action of arriving, from some agent : whilst, in truth, the 
nuncio is the exclusive actor, to whom alone, the action is con- 
fined, without passing to any object whatever. The following 
are erroneous examples in this respect :— " The bird which sung 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

so sweetly is flown." Murray, "has flown." "Grammarians 
are pretty generally agreed." Walker. Rhet. Gram, "have 
agreed." " The English fleet was retired into Plymouth harbor." 
Goldsmith, "had retired." The expressions, "He is come 
home f " I am resolved to write ;" " He is determined to go ;" " I 
was gone ;" " They are grown;" as countenanced by Mr. Murray, 
and sanctioned by the "improver" of his system, (the Rev. John 
Davis, A. M.) should be, — "He has come (to or from) home*," 
'•'I have resolved-" "He has determined;" "I had gone;" 
41 They have grown." Mr. Cobbett has also noticed this sub- 
ject ; but, unhappily, has said sufficient to establish his total un- 
acquaintance with the peculiarities of this part of speech. 

4. The phrases, "George is sent for ;" "James was fired* 
at;" " He was smiled on ,-" contain, each, a similar error. In the 
usual acceptation of these expressions, other agents, beside the 
persons mentioned, seem to be involved in the completion of the 
phrases: as, "George is sent for, by Thomas;" "James was 
fired at, by Henry ;" "He was smiled on, by William." Now, 
if the definition which has been presented of a passive verb be 
admitted ; and, the distinction and arrangement between active, 
passive, and neuter verbs, be suffered to obtain, the two first 
examples, as containing what are really neuter, but apparently 
passive verbs, must signify, that "George is sent for something 
by Thomas;" and, that "James was fired at something by Hen- 
ry :" and, consequently, the last example which includes a neuter 
verb improperly assuming a passive construction, must signify, 
that " He was smiled on something, by William." Should this 
theory be denied, — let us examine one of the foregoing cases : — 
" George is sent for, by Thomas" George is nominative to the 
verbis sent: — For is a preposition, and must govern some ob- 
jective case. No object presents its self here, for the government 
of this preposition, but the noun Thomas: and this receives a 
government from the preposition by, which precedes it. Where, 
then, shall we find the object of this preposition 1 Certainly, in 
the word something which is necessarily supplied : or, in some 
equivalent noun. This remark will answer for the other exam- 
ples. See page 65. 



' Fire, as a verb, seems a tolerated obtrusion. 



SYNTAX. 



177 



Although active or operative constructions of neuter verbs 
are properly admitted and employed, yet, passive ones are, in ali 
instances, spurious. In support of this doctrine, we observe, that 
on all such occasions, verbs, which are really and naturally 
passive, can be efficiently substituted. Instead of, " The picture 
was looked on; 1 ' we should say, "The picture was viewed?* 
For, — 



She was spoken to, — 
He was listened to, — 
He was railed at, — 
They were looked at,— 
They were looked for, — 
It is approved of, — 
He was inquired of,— 
They were laughed at,— 
He was smiled on, — 
It was thought of, — 
It was spoken of, — 
It is contended for, — 
He was referred to, — 



S 



r She was addressed. 

He was heard. 

He was reproached. 

They were seen. 

They were sought. 

•It is liked. 

He was questioned. 

They were ridiculed. 

He was favored. 

It was remembered. 

It was mentioned. 

It is maintained. 
[ He was consulted, &c. 



5. Passive constructions, which are expressive of the actions 
of giving, bestowing, showing, teaching, telling, paying, and 
perhaps a few others, are improperly employed in the following^ 
examples : " He was given money ;" " I was bestowed a horse ;'•• 
''John was shown a picture;" "He was taught grammar;" 
" I am told a tale j" " He was paid his wages." 

To prove the impropriety of this language, let us inquire what 
suffered the action, in each instance. In the expression, — " I gave 
money to him," evidently, money is what was given; and, conse- 
quently, the object which suffered the action. We should there- 
fore say, " Money was given to him ;" " A horse was bestowed 
to me ;" " A picture was shown to John ;" " Grammar was 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

taught to him j" " A tale was told to me ;•" " Wages were paid 
to him." ' 

To say, as in the original construction, " He was given 
money," would signify, that "He was given, or delivered," — 
not the money: and, the phrase, "I was bestowed a horse," 
would imply, that " I was bestowed, or presented," — not the 
horse. Further, as the verbs to show and to exhibit are of synony- 
mous import, the substitution of the one for the other would be 
effective, if the original structures were faultless; and, there- 
fore, we may be justified in the exercise of the following pre- 
posterous phraseology, — "John was exhibited a picture." Ob- 
serve the aptness of this substitute, in the proposed amendment: — 
" A picture was exhibited (or shown) to John." 

Passive verbs which are expressive of knowledge, making, 
acknowledgment, salutation, appointment, remembrance, choos- 
ing, proving, thinking, engaging, naming, conception, and elec- 
tion, are followed by nominative cases of the subjects known, 
made, &c. ; which are always nouns of apposition, or equivalent 
to such: as, "He was known a. friend;" " George is acknowledged 
king ;" "He was appointed guardian" &c. 

6. Unsuitable applications of certain verbs (more particularly 
those of passive construction) arise from the impropriety of at- 
tributing to inanimate subjects those properties peculiar only to 
intelligence. The following sentences are exceptionable in this 
respect: — " That a falsehood should be sworn to injure another, 
is impious and horrible." Clarke. A falsehood may be stated, 
and a person may impiously swear to its truth; but, the falsehood 
(its self) cannot be sworn;* unless we suppose it to possess intel- 
lectual capability. A person may be sworn to the truth or false- 
hood of a deposition : but, a deposition (its self) cannot be sworn. 
We should therefore say, — " That a person should swear , or be 



" As every agent rendered capable of action, through the medium of any 
particular active verb, will receive or endure a similar action through the 
same verb passively employed, so would the agents, in the cases produced, 
if unexceptionably constructed: for example, — "I give," — "lam given:" 
"I tore," — "I was torn:" "He may conquer," — "He may be conquered:" 
"It dissolves," — " It is dissolved." This doctrine will not apply in the 
instances above noticed : for, as a falsehood cannot swear , neither can it 
b* stcorn. The figure Metonomy does not apply here. 



SYNTAX. 179 

sworn to the truth of a falsehood, is," &c. M When the" relative 
and verb have been determined to agree with either of the nomina- 
tives." Murray. The verb determine, which, in this instance, is 
improperly made to assume a passive instead of a neuter construc- 
tion, (see p. 65) represents the determination as vested in "the rela- 
tive and verb:" — not in the speaker or writer thus supposed to em- 
ploy them ; as was intended. " The question is disposed to puzzle 
me." The question possesses no disposition; and, therefore, is 
not disposed. We may say. — "is calculated to puzzle." The 
expression, " He was drunk last night," affords a ludicrous in- 
stance in this, or nearly a similar respect. It signifies, that " He 
was absorbed, or swallowed.*" This should be, " He was drunken 
last night;" thus expressive of his state or quality: that is, "a 
drunken person." 

7. The verb to be, through all its variations, whether expressed 
or understood, will take the same case of a noun or pronoun after 
it, as that which immediately precedes it ; both being nouns or 
pronouns of apposition: as, "I am he;" "We are they whom you 
want;" "She is the person whom I esteem;" "He is not the friend 
that he formerly was." These are cases in which a nominative 
precedes and follows the verb. The ensuing are instances in 
which the government of the preceding nouns or pronouns oc- 
curs: — consequently a noun or pronoun in a similar situation 
must follow; as, " John took James to be me;" " I proved him to 
be the man ;" " Whom do you know me to be V 1 " 1 know that he 
is the man whom I formerly believed him to be." 

The following sentences afford examples of wrong construction 
suited to this case: — "John is him I suspect for it;" "They are 
not them I injure by my neglect;" "Whom do men say that 1 
ami" " Whom think ye that / ami" The errors, in these cases, 
will be obvious, if we complete the sentences, by supplying the 
words which are omitted. Thus, in the phrase, John is him I 
suspect for it;" the active verb suspect seems to require the pro- 
noun as it stands : as will more feasibly appear, when we reflect, 
that some person is suspected, and, that when the individual is 
represented, we must say, " I suspect him:" not, — " I suspect **." 



• We proper^ say* H Wine vras drunk ;''— not a person See Note, ?. 17 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

However, this apparent difficulty will instantly vanish, when we 
supply the word omitted by ellipsis; thus, — "John is he whom I 
suspect for it." Here, the relative is necessarily introduced, be- 
cause a circumstance depends on its introduction : (see page 55) 
and is also necessarily governed by the verb suspect. See remarks 
on Parsing, 

Mr. Murray has erred in the application of this rule. In the 
examples of his exercises to the 17th rule of his syntax may be 
read the following sentences: — "It was not he that they were so 
•angry with f "It is not I he is engaged with. 55 These, he attempts 
to correct, in his Key; thus, — "It was not with him, that they 
were so angry; 55 "It is not with me, he is engaged. 55 * 

These errors, we are compelled to say, exhibit much miscon- 
ception on the part of Mr. M. : — particularly so, as the third ex- 
ample, before the first here cited, is of a similar construction ; 
and, is properly corrected by our author. The amendments ought 
to have been, — "It was not he, with whom they were so angry;' 5 
"It is not i, with whom he is engaged. On the impropriety of 
employing the word it, as in the above examples, see page 156. 

8. The verb to be, when in the infinitive mood, as here written, 
seems, in certain cases, to have peculiar effect on a noun or pro- 
noun preceding it, by its requiring such noun or pronoun in the 
objective case; as, "I know him to be a worthy man; 55 "I believe 
them to be correct persons." Now, the sentence, " I know he is a 
worthy man," appears to furnish the full meaning and effect of 
the former ; but, with this difference, that the verb know, in the 
former, governs the objective case, but does not in the latter. 
The reason for which it does not govern the pronoun, in the latter 
example, is evident*, as by the following position will appear: — 
" I know that, he is a worthy man: 55 that is, — "He is a worthy 
man, — I know that : 55 (truth or circumstance.) See dissertation 
on that, page 59. In truth, when a noun or pronoun is thus in- 
fluenced, it must be preceded by an active verb, or some governing 
word. The ensuing sentence is therefore improper: "I think 
them to be vicious persons who set an evil example to youth and 



* An attempt to reconcile the structure of this sentence to the tenor of the 
fourth note to rule the eleventh, by Mr. Murray, would place an advocate of 
fcis parsing system in no very enviable position, 



SYNTAX, 181 

innocence." This should be, — " I think they or those are vicious 
persons," &c. Here, the indicative structure prevails; and is 
directed by a nominative : a circumstance which cannot properly 
occur when the infinitive form is introduced, — preceded by a 
neuter verb ; as in this instance. We properly say, " I believe 
him to be a friend :" or, "I believe (that) he is a friend:" while, 
we improperly say, " I hope him to be a friend :" although, we 
correctly say, " I hope (that) he is a friend." See dissertation on 
the word that, page 59. 

9. The active forms of verbs are sometimes incautiously em- 
ployed in passive senses ; as, " These are the persons who compose 
the assembly;" "This timber makes charcoal;" instead of, "These 
are the persons of whom the assembly is composed :" " Charcoal 
is made of this timber." 

The word cost is improperly classed among verbs. If this word 
be a verb, in any instance, it is so, in the expression, " The pic- 
ture cost a crown." In this construction, the word croicn appears 
to be placed as an object after this supposed verb : but, as every 
active verb must influence its object; and, as crown suffers no 
action in this case, evidently the word cost is no verb. The word 
matter is, in this sense, liable to a similar objection ; as. " It 
matters not what his views are." Curran. Speeches. Strictly 
speaking, we have no such verbs as to cost, to matter, to near, to 
thread, to fire, to circumstance. Instead of saying, — " The picture 
cost a crown," we should say, " The picture's cost is a crown:" 
and, in place of, " It matters not," &c, we may say, " His views 
do not signify:" or, " No matter attaches to his views:" &c. 

"When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which 
may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree 
with either of them; as, ' His meat was locusts and wild honey; 7 
' The wages of sin is death.' " 

This is a rule generally observed by grammarians. To eluci- 
date its substance Mr. Murray says, that we have only to direct 
" some attention to the noun which is more naturally the subject 
of the verb ; as also to that which stands next to it." What does 
Mr. M. mean, by saying, that, "it may agree with either of 
them V As we understand him, — he means, that the verb may 
agree with either the singular or the plural noun ; as, " His meat 
16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was locusts and wild honey;" or, "His meat were locusts and 
wild honey :" which latter structure, he perhaps intends to justify 
by the following position: — "Locusts and wild honey were his 
meat." We would again inquire, what does our grammarian 
mean, by "having some regard to that which stands next to the 
verb?" Next, signifies nearest; and, in the phrase, "His meat 
was locusts" to comprehend which of the nouns, meat or locusts, 
stands next to the verb, is, in our opinion, rather difficult : whilst 
the one as immediately precedes it, as the other follows it. Mr. 
Murray might have had some latent meaning for this word and 
its application, of which he has not been pleased to put his reader 
in possession. However, we must say, and with regret, that such 
equivocal exposition (for, by a more indulgent term, we cannot 
characterize it) is not calculated to benefit the young student; 
who, in different cases, rarely regards which noun "is more 
naturally the subject of the verb." And, as for adopting that 
"which stands next to it," which, by varying the position of the 
sentence, may, in almost every instance, be the wrong one, his 
determination must be lost in the inquiry. Having tried the 
following rule in a variety of ways, it is proposed as one which 
is conceived to be perfectly suited to the case in question :— 

10. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes be- 
tween a singular noun and a plural one, it should invariably 
agree with the leading nominative; as, "Twelve pence are one 
shilling;" " One shilling is twelve pence;" " The nuisance is the 
rabble ;" " His meat was locusts." 

Nouns thus situated are in apposition ; or, at least, intended to 
be so. (See page 179.) Now, as plural nouns cannot be placed 
in apposition to singular ones, nor singulars in apposition to 
plurals, — evidently, the sense remains to be supplied, by some 
words understood. Thus, the first example is equivalent to, 
"Twelve pence are equal to one shilling;" not, "Twelve pence 
are one shilling ." because, no number of pence is a shilling, any 
more than a substance is its self, and a different one, at the same 
time. "The nuisance is the rabble," signifies, — "The nuisance 
is composed of, or, produced by the rabble." " His meat was lo- 
custs," means, " His meat was composed of locusts." In all sen- 
tences, thus expressed, an ellipsis is clearly discernible. If this 
were not the case, we should be reduced to the inconsistent 



! SYNTAX. 183 

necessity of denominating one object, — many: — and, many ob- 
jects, — ONE. 

11. A verb on which another has an influence or bearing is 
frequently placed in the infinitive mood; as, "Strive to lead a 
virtuous life;" "Learn to despise flattery, falsehood, and vice;" 
"Man is bound to shun evil." The particle to is sometimes 
omitted, but understood;* as, "I will make him pay me;" "He 
dares not trust a sycophant;" " I have heard him regret his fate ;" 
" They let him know their degradation." All verbs in the im- 
perative mood are similarly situated; as, "Let me speak;" that 
is, "Allow me to speak:" "Let me write;" — "Permit me to 
write:" &c. See Conjugation of Imperative Mood. 

12. The infinitive form of a verb is sometimes employed where 
a pronoun only is admissible ; as, "I do not admire men to be too 
captious on every trivial occasion :" "who are too captious." " I 
am not like other men, to envy the talents which I cannot reach." 
Swift, "who envy the talents which they cannot reach:" or, 
" that /should envy the talents which /cannot reach." 

Adjectives frequently take the infinitive mood after them ; as, 
"I am desirous to know him;" "He is anxious to be rewarded. '• 
"Nouns. and participles have a similar effect; as, "I have a 
desire to see him;" "He is preparing to write ;" " I was expecting 
to hear from you." 

13. A verb which follows a declaration, and expresses a present 
or future consequence, should be in the present tense of the poten- 
tial mood; as, "He studies morality, that he may avoid vice:" 
not, — " that he might avoid." See page 95. 

The errors which prevail amongst writers of all classes, in the 
employment of the auxiliary verbs, and particularly of the words 
may and might, are too numerous to find admittance into the 
largest volume. We shall therefore select a few specimens from 
the writings of those from whom correctness ought to be ex- 
pected: — more especially, as the errors of those writers imply 
so many breaches of their own theory, on this point: — previ- 



* Before the verbs, let, hear, make, need, bid, dare, see. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ously observing, that may is indicative of present or future-; and 
might of passed, action. 

The following illustration will suffice for the examples which 
we mean to introduce: — In the expression, "He studies mo- 
rality, that he might avoid vice :" obviously, the avoiding of vice 
is an act which is supposed to occur subsequently to the study of 
morality, which is expressed in the present tense. The verb 
should therefore be may: that is, "He studies now, that he may 
afterwards avoid." " Corruptions in religion and learning might* 
furnish matter for a satire." Swift. u may furnish." "On the 
study of grammar much might be advanced." Murray. " In 
philosophical strictness, both number and person might be exclu- 
ded from every verb." Murray. " These words might be proper 
words." Blair. Led. 24. " That the learner might not be in- 
duced to mistake them." Murray. " He who can establish the 
proportion between crimes and sufferings, might securely rest 
upon his performance of the expiation." In each of these in- 
stances, the verb should be may. 

14. A verb which follows a declaration, and expresses a passed 
consequence, should be in the passed tense of the potential mood ; 
as, "His work is not as well performed as it might have been:' 1 
not, — " as it may have been. 11 The ensuing sentences are inaccu- 
rate in this respect : — " This difference of opinion among gram- 
marians, may have contributed," &c. Murray. " Though Lady 
Racket may have had some reasons." Ram. 10. " On that sub- 
ject, I may have had as correct information as others." Mans- 
field. Speeches. In all these places, the verb should be might. 
See page 95. 

Further remarks on the moods of verbs appear to be unneces- 
sary here ; as the subject is already entertained in Etymology 
and, a few observations which may be found under the head of 
conjunctions, are all that remain to be made on the subject. We 
shall therefore proceed to an examination of the tenses or times. 

15. All the variations or inflections of verbs should minutely 



* The expression, " I intend to visit you to-morrow, if I could," is neither 
worse grammar nor sense than these are. It should be, — "If I can," 



SYNTAX. 185 

correspond to the tenses or times in which action is described, 
For example: — We could not with propriety say, — "The boy 
reads better than I expected to have heard him read:" "The time 
is passed in which I hoped to have heard from him." Addison. 
These should be, t( to hear him read;" li to hear from him." In 
the first of these examples, the circumstance of hearing the boy 
read, is subsequent to the expectation, which must have been pre- 
viously excited. Therefore, in conformity to sense, as well as to 
grammar, we^hould say, — "The boy reads better than I ex- . 
pected to hear him read." This construction will admit of no 
question, when we recal the circumstance to the present time ; or 
transfer our ideas to the period in which the action is supposed to 
have occurred. Then, we shall perceive, that " I was expecting 
to hear the boy read;" — not, "to have heard him read:" which 
would be, to form an expectation concerning an event, that, as 
yet, had not occurred to my mind. 

This illustration will answer for the other example ; and, per- 
haps, for all that may be introduced on this subject: for, the 
reader must be informed, that to observe close attention to the 
sense and construction of each sentence, is all the assistance 
w T hich he can expect on this point ; and, indeed, all that appears 
necessary. The following are examples of wrong construction 
suited to this rule : — " To-morrow, I should have changed brag 
for faro." Ram. No. 15. "To-morrow, I shall change" "He 
had still continued to ravage his estate, had he not caught a cold." 
Ram. 151. " He would, have continued." " I am sure the honor- 
able member will see the propriety of reserving his observations 
till the proper time arrives." Speaker. House of Com. "till the 
proper time shall arrive." " I did expect that the right honorable 
gentleman would have been here to attend to the ballot." Canning. 
" would be here." "John's having been writing a long time had 
wearied him." Murray. 

To prove the impropriety of this expression, we shall confine 
ourselves to Mr. Murray's definition of the pluperfect tense, 
which says, that "it represents a thing, not only as passed, but 
also, as prior to some other point of time specified in the sen- 
tence ; as, 1 1 had finished my letter before he arrived.' " 

The event related of John's writing is expressed in the perfect 
tense ; and certainly, the weariness, which was to arise, not only 
16* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

at a subsequent time to the writing; but also, as a consequence of it, 
cannot be expressed in the pluperfect tense : unless we suppose the 
weariness occasioned by writing, to have occurred previously to 
the writing its self, which is admitted to be the cause of it. The 
sentence should be, "John's having been writing a long time has 
wearied him." "Those who consider such minute discussions 
beneath their attention, had best pass over what will seem to them 
a tedious part of the work." Blair. Lect. 20. "would best pass 
over." " It had been better, if our author had said more simply," 
&c. Blair. Lect. 20. " It would have been better." " Here are 
two circumstances which had better have been separated." Blair. 
Lect. 24. This is an awkward sentence. We have perfect and 
pluperfect tenses commixed, without much meaning or connec- 
tion. It ought to be, " Here are two circumstances which, if 
separated, would have been better:" or, "Here are two circum- 
stances which would have been better, if separated." Observe 
what a vast difference would be made in the sense, by the intro- 
duction of the word should into this sentence: thus, "Here are 
two circumstances which should have been better separated." The 
original meaning is, — "The two circumstances would appear 
better than they do, if separated, or apart from each other." The 
latter expression signifies, that " the two circumstances ought to 
have been better separated than they were." This difference, in 
words, apparently, so nearly allied in sense, is sufficient to show 
what caution ought to be observed in the use of those auxiliaries. 

We shall close our observations on this subject, with one ex- 
ample in general use ; as the student must now be supposed to 
have a perfect knowledge of the construction of tenses in compo- 
sition: — "I did expect, that I should have heard some reasons 
given on that point." " The hearing must evidently be posterior 
to the expectation ; and when we retrace our ideas to the time of 
the expectation, we shall perceive, that the speaker was expecting 
to hear reasons;" — not, "to have heard them." 

16. When simple* tenses are employed in the infinitve mood, 
they, in general, denote action coeval with the tense of the gov- 
erning verb, or posterior to it; as, "I one day hoped to see 



* Simple tenses are those which are expressed without the aid of aux* 
iliaries ; in contradistinction to compounded tenses which require them. 



SYNTAX. 187 

him pious;" not, "to have seen;" as this would transfer the expec- 
tation of seeing him pious, to a time prior to that in which the 
hope was formed : or, otherwise, that the expectation of his piety- 
was excited, before the hope to that effect entered my mind ; which 
would be impossible. But, when compounded tenses, in the infinitive 
mood, are used, they, in general, if not on every occasion, ex- 
press action anterior to the tense in w r hich the governing verb 
is placed ; as, " To have found him inclined to piety, would have 
been a source of consolation :" not, " to find ;" which would be to 
say, — " To find him now or hereafter inclined to piety would 
previously have been a source of consolation." 

Those verbs which are expressive of permission, desire, hopc % 
intention, command, instruction, and entreaty, though expressed in 
the passed time, require the present tense of the infinitive mood to 
denote the relative time with which they are employed : as, " He 
permitted me to consult his library;" "He desired me to see 
his friend;" "We intended to write." In none of these cases 
would the perfect tense be suitable. But ? with respect to the verb 
ought, when employed in referring to passed action, the verb 
which accompanies it must invariably be in the perfect tense of the 
infinitive mood; as, "We ought to have supported those who 
advocate virtue :" that is, u We then ought to have supported" 

Here, the ingenious student may naturally inquire, what is 
meant by the present and perfect tenses of the infinitive mood % 
particularly, when he perceives, that this mood respects no such 
qualifications in its conjugation. The answer is plain. The 
tense in which the guiding or governing verb is placed, whether 
in the present, passed, or future, will always determine the order 
of the guided or governed verb ; which, by being placed in the 
infinitive mood, derives its title from it : not, that this mood is 
liable to those variations in tenses to which others are subjected. 

Before we conclude our observations on the subject of verbs 
generally, w r e shall notice a few peculiarities to which they are 
disposed, that do not immediately come under the cognizance 
of rules. And first, we shall remark, that some sentences are 
so constructed, as to possess verbs apparently destitute of nomi- 
native cases. Take the following example : " Among the many 
excuses which are given for the neglect of religious duty, the 
want of time is the most general ; yet. the most unsubstantial " 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In this sentence, the verb arc does not appear to depend on a 
nominative. It certainly refers to the antecedent excuses; but 
this word is in the objective case, — governed by the preposition 
among. Where, then, shall we find the nominative of the verb! 
Shall we say, that the relative which is the nominative 1 Assur- 
edly not. The truth is, — the introduction of the relative changes 
that which was previously the objective case, into the nomina- 
tive ; by the ideal repetition, or renewal of the antecedent or prin- 
cipal word. This, as was formerly observed, forms one great 
and grand use of the relative. The following is the precise con- 
struction of the sentence: " Among the many excuses which* 
(excuses) are given," &c. See Syntax of Pronouns, page 153. 

17. The expression, " I had like to fall," though common, is 
ungrammatical. It should be, " I was likely to fall :" that is, 
" My position was such, that / was likely to fall" 

The verbs lay and lie are frequently confouuded with each 
other, in common conversation ; as, " He lay the money on the 
table:" "laid." " They have laid four hours in bed:" "lain" 
" We hope to see the lion laying down with the lamb:" " lying" 
" The ship lays at anchor :" u lies" 

Sit, sow, and set; as, u My corn was sat:" "sown" " Are 



* Should an opponent to our theory contend, that the equally plausible 
adjustment of Hit personal relative presents an obstacle to the general appli- 
cability and reception of our scheme; we answer, by observing, that who 
(grammatically considered) is, in all respects, equivalent to ichich, and may, 
with equal effect and propriety, be employed as its substitute ; did not long 
t : t -iblished and appropriate usage render the variation convenient, and there- 
lore necessary ; so as to distinguish between persons and things. In expla- 
nation : — An objector may submit, that although our dialect readily admits 
the repetition or renewal of the antecedent, through the medium of the 
relative ichich, — it does not do so, with equal success, through the relative 
who : inasmuch, as, that an awkwardness would attend the construction : — 
" The master who (master) taught us is good," that would not be observa- 
ble in the construction, " The trees which (trees) were planted are useful." 
To this objection, we take leave to repeat, as an efficient reply, the reason, 
already advanced : and to arid, as in the phrase, — " Man is a creature that 
possesses intelligence, " we are compelled, from the peculiarity of its con- 
struction, (see page 165) to employ the relative that, in preference to who 
or ichich (notwithstanding the identity of the antecedents) — that therefore 
*>ur theory on this point, is consistent and conclusive throughout. 



SYNTAX. 189 

:he plants soum?" M s#." " The type is so*.-" " set." " Are the 
'seeds set?" "sown." 

Mow and fly ; as, "The banks of the river are ovcrflmni;" 
u overflowed." 

Flee and fly; as, " The men flew to arms:'' "fled" " The 
fcird fled from me :" "flew from me." 

The expression, n says I" when speaking of a passed circum- 
stance, is frequent, though a great corruption. The natural order 
of the sentence is, " / says" Doctor Johnson has fallen into this, 
or a similar error. In the 115th No. of his Rambler, we read the 
following passage, in the relation of an event which had pre- 
viously occurred,— "Well," says she, "has nature provided that 
such virulence should be disabled by folly:" "Well, said she" 



Of Participles. 

RULE I. 

Active Participles govern Nouns and Pronouns 
in the same manner as the Verbs from which they are 
derived ; as, " I am teaching him ;" He is leading 
me ;" "We are hearing them. 11 

1. A convenient and agreeable affection to which our lan- 
guage is disposed is observable, in the use of the participle ; 
with an article before it, and the preposition of after it : thus, 
rendering it, in construction and meaning, equivalent to a noun. 
A few examples will best illustrate this peculiarity: — " The 
repeating of crimes, instead of exciting compunction, tends only 
to harden the sinner." " In the propagating of virtue, we should 
be unceasing." These mean, and are synonymous with, — 
" The repetition of crimes ;" — " In the propagation of virtue." 
But here, the learner will observe, that in neither of these exam- 
ples could the article or preposition be expunged, without de- 
stroying the effect noticed. We cannot properly say, — " Th-r 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

repeating crimes," as this would intimate a quality peculiar to 
crimes ; and consequently confer, on the participle, the full force 
and signification of an adjective : as by the example in Etymo- 
logy may be observed. (Page 112.) Neither can we say, "Re- 
peating of crimes" as the word crimes, in this sense, would seem 
to require and receive a double government from the two prece- 
ding words: — a result, not more repugnant than unnecessary, 
to grammatical laws and arrangements. 

To prove, that the participle is always a noun, in sentences 
thus constructed; and, that neither the article nor preposition 
can b3 omitted, except by ellipsis, we shall examine the ensuing 
example: — " In the mode of communicating instruction, we 
should be explicit." The preposition of places communicating in 
the objective case; and therefore deprives it of any government 
in the sentence. Now, as every noun must occupy some case ; 
and, as the noun instruction is not a nominative to any verb in 
the sentence, — evidently, it must be in the objective case; and 
governed by the preposition of, understood: — thus, "In the 
mode of the communicating of instruction." 

Bishop Lowth, speaking of this peculiarity of the participle, 
has justly remarked, that " this rule (if such it may be denomina- 
ted) arises from the nature and idiom of our language ; and, from 
as plain a principle as any on which it is founded ; namely, that 
a word which has an article befpre it, and the preposition of after 
it, must be a noun ; and, as a noun, it ought to follow the con- 
struction of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb." 
The following example will, .perhaps, afford some additional 
light to the subject: — " Hirsutus had no other reason for the 
valuing a book." Ram. 177. The word valuing is unquestionably 
a noun ; as it is preceded by an article : and yet, in consequence 
of its present position, and apparent influence, it seems to assume 
the nature of a verb active ; and to operate as such on the word 
book. But, to treat a word thus situated in a double capacity, 
while under the same regimen, is certainly inconsistent with just 
grammatical principles. 

In order to exhibit the impropriety of employing participles 
in certain cases, as if they were nouns and not verbs, we shall 
extract the following sentence from Dr. Blair's 34th lecture : — 
11 1 would not advise the omitting to read any part of GLuintilian's 



SYNTAXo 191 

institutions." This, truly and grammatically means, — " I would 
not advise the omission to read." 

The particle this, as has been already intimated, is an equiva- 
lent for an article; and, in this instance, it will effectually sup- 
port the position of which we have been treating : as, " Time 
is unwarrantably destroyed; yet, a day will arrive, when we 
must account for this destroying of so precious an opportunity 
as it affords:" That is, for "the destroying of" or, "for the 
destruction of." 

2. Nouns and personal pronouns have sometimes a similar 
situation and effect; as, "From the writer's describing of the 
actions :" or, " From his description of them."' 

The exclusion of the article and preposition from sentences, 
thus constructed, w T ill cause a vast difference in the sense. " He 
was delighted at the lecturing of the grammarian," is not, in 
sense or meaning, the same as, " He was delighted at lecturing 
the grammarian." Caution is therefore necessary, in the appli- 
cation of this participial phrase. 

3. Participles are sometimes improperly used instead of verbs 
in the infinitive mood ; as, " It is not easy finding an example of 
excellence :" " To find" " We should not endeavor 'pulling up 
those foundations, in which all Christians have agreed." Swift. 
Apol. T. Tub. " To pull." 

4. Grammarians in general, and Lowth and Murray in parti- 
cular, appear to have been partially embarrassed, with respect 
to the constructions of certain phrases, in which a participle is 
ratner peculiarly involved : and, while perplexed in their views, 
and essaying to instruct others in their theory, have gravely told 
their readers, — that, " When the nominative case has no per- 
sonal tense of a verb, but is put before a participle, independently 
on (query, of) the rest of the sentence : it is called the case abso^ 
lute ; as, ' Shame being lost, all virtue is lost :' ' That having 
been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it/ " 

Surprise must cease, on an acquaintance with the fact, that 
persons who imbibe such fantastical doctrine should be destitute 
of sterling information on the subject of English grammar. 
What those grammarians mean, by saying, that " the nominative 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

case has no personal tense of a verb," is language so incompre- 
hensible, that ingenuity seems unequal to the task of explication. 
The truth is, that when those philologists and their allies exam- 
ined such sentences as the above, they felt their inability to re- 
concile the structures of them to any Imown principles of the 
language : and very laconically and learnedly allayed inquiry, by 
proposing this undefined title, — " the case absolute." The English 
language is a stranger to this case. We speak thus, with con- 
fidence, conscious of the justness of our opinion : — an opinion, 
not precipitately formed, but one which is the result of mature 
and deliberate inquiry. Let the examples above quoted be care- 
fully examined, and we shall instantly perceive their natural 
structures : — " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost :" The mean- 
ing of this is, — " When shame is being lost, all virtue is lost." 
Here, the words is being lost, form the true present tense of the 
passive voice ; in which voice, all verbs, thus expressed, are 
unsuspectedly situated: thus, agreeing with the noun shame l as 
the nominative of the first member of the sentence. See page 99. 

We perform but an act of justice towards Mr. Cobbett, when 
we recognize his denunciation of this " case absolute :" however, 
as his explanation on this point is rather unsatisfactory, we must 
forbear to notice it. 

5. We are informed by Mr. Murray, that " the present and 
active participle is sometimes used passively; as, 'The youth 
was consuming by a slow malady ( i The Indian was burning 
by the cruelty of his enemies.' 55 This is, unquestionably, an 
error, — the result, we apprehend, of incompetent decision on 
this perverted mode of phraseology. The phrases, — "My 
clothes are making by the tailor; 55 "The streets are paving by 
the men ; 55 are expressions, in grammatical construction, equi- 
valent to, " The youth was consuming by a slow malady," &c. 
Now, in truth, my clothes are not making any thing ; neither are 
the streets 'paving any thing : nor consequently was the youth con- 
suming any thing ; but, was being consumed by the malady, as 
the agent. Such sentences should therefore be written, when 
expressed through the medium of passive participles, — "The 
youth was being consumed by a malady ; 5> " The Indian teas 
being burned by his enemies; 55 "My clothes are being made;" 
" The streets are being paved" 



SYNTAX. 193 

In order to make this subject, if possible, more familiar to the 
comprehension of the young student, we shall add a few illustra- 
tive observations. And first, he is instructed to take notice, that 
in what way soever the active participle is used, it must govern 
an objective case : an effect that could not ensue, if it were ren- 
dered passive, by its connection with the verb to be; which, as 
was formerly observed, has no other influence, than to mark the 
continuation of the action which the participle expresses, (p. 112.) 
Thus, in the examples, — " The men are sowing the corn;'"' " John 
is tearing the cloth ;" " The tailor is making my clothes;" " The 
executioner is binding the criminal;" we perceive the participle, 
in each phrase, followed by an objective case of the thing sown, 
torn, made, or bound. But, if we invert these sentences, and 
say, — " The corn is sowing by the men;" "The cloth is 
tearing by John ;" " My clothes are making by the tailor ;" 
"The criminal is binding by the executioner;" the participles 
will not be followed by objects of the actions which they express : 
and, consequently, the meaning must be, " The corn is sowing 
something by the men;". "The cloth is tearing 'something by 
John;" "My clothes are making something by the tailor;" 
11 The criminal is binding something by the executioner :" whilst, 
in truth, the com (as inanimate . matter) is not acting ; and con- 
sequently not sowing any substance ; neither is the cloth tearing 
any thing: nor are the clothes making — nor is the criminal bind- 
ing any thing : but was, his self, being bound. Should this theory 
need further proof, the learner will reflect, that the expressions, 
— " He binds, — he does bind, — and, — he is binding," are, each, 
of synonymous import : — and, that as the former two require 
objects after them, so will the last : Therefore, the sentence, 
" My clothes are making by the tailor," is equivalent to, " They 
make, — They do make, — or, — They are making something;" 
which is but another assertion for nonsense. 

We frequently meet the following, or a similar expression, in 
the preface of some well written books: — " While this work was 
preparing for the press." The writer surely did not mean, that 
the work was preparing its self, or any other thing : though this 
is what he unintentionally says. The language should be,— 
11 While this work was being prepared for the press." See Conj\ 
of Pass. Verbs, Passed Tense. 

17 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To what has been advanced on the present and passed con- 
structions of passive verbs, we subjoin the following observa- 
tions ; as further illustrative of the truth of our doctrine: — 

All grammarians agree in thus representing the conjugation 
of the present participle, in the active voice: — Suppose the par- 
ticiple SMITING. 



Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

{SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I am smiting. 1. We are smiting 

&c &c 

Passed Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I was smiting. 1. We were smiting. 

&c. &c. 

Fully concurring in the propriety of this representation, we 
necessarily claim permission to inquire of the opponents of our 
system, (if such still exist) under what construction will they 
represent the passive conjugation of this active participle '? 

As, with our prepossessions, we anticipate no answer, we are 
naturally led to expect compliance with, and concurrence in T 
those views, which we have already advocated. Nevertheless, 
should the prejudiced or unyielding opponent, although, as we 
conceive, " fairly vanquished," still pertinaciously endeavor to 
contend against the tenor of our suit, and again assert, that the 
expressions, " I am smitten f " I was smitten j" &c, afford in- 
stances of the required constructions; — we reply, — these are 
the universally acknowledged forms of the verbs in these tenses, 
in the passive voice : — not of the participle. In all verbal con- 
structions of the character of which we have hitherto treated, 
(see page 103) and, where the actions described are continuous 



SYNTAX. 195 

in their operations, — the participle being is imperceptibly omit- 
ted, by ellipsis. 

To those who would fain characterize this doctrine, in the 
light of a cumbrous, unnecessary, or unacceptable innovation, 
not needed; — while the usually received, and long practised 
forms, sufficiently serve to convey oui intentions on this point : — 
we observe, — that a similar objection, and equally well grounded, 
would obtain against all attempts of a novel character, in science 
generally ; and consequently preclude us from the enjoyment of 
those advantages and improvements which modern ingenuity and 
experiments have so happily produced. This would, in effect, be 
Jo draw a veil over the resplendent countenance of light and 
knowledge; and modestly invite us to bow down in the shade. 

We shall close our remarks on this subject, with an extract 
from a late writer — the Rev. John Davis, A.M. "We have," 
says our "improve?* of Murray's grammar," as he is pleased to 
observe, "no good contrivance for a passive voice in the present 
indicative. When we say, c The house is built,' we assert the 
completion of an action. The nearest approach we make to it, 
with respect to sense, (query — non*****) is, by the expression, 

* The house is a-building ;' but here, we cofound the voices. 
Some English writers use the phrase, ' The house is being built' 
Some attempt to supply this want, by prefixing the letter a to the 
present participle; as, ' The house is a-building :' but this mode of 
expression has not been generally adopted. A slight variation of 
the expression would free us from all difficulty ; for Ave can say, 

* The building of the house goes forward,' or, { The workmen arc 
employed in building the house.' " 

What! Does Mr. Davis mean to say, that our language is too bar- 
ren to afford a passive participial construction and exhibition of a 
present action! Truly may we, with Sterne's commentator on criti- 
cism, exclaim, "Oh! grant us patience!" Better our author had frank- 
ly said, — To prefer the known and beaten path, to what appears 
to me the doubtful way, is wisdom: — perhaps opportunely seiz- 
ing, as an appropriate leaning staff, the well known adage : " The 
longest way about, is the safest way home." See Conj. of Pass. 
Verbs. 

& The active participle wanting is frequently employed for the 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

passive* participle wanted: as, "You are wanting in the garden tf 9 
instead of, "You are wanted in the garden." The latter signifies, 
accordingly to the intent for which it is designed, that — "You 
are wanted in the garden by another person." 

That such writers as Blair and Johnson should have commit- 
ted an error so palpable as this, is not a little extraordinary: — 
" To .say the truth, this last sentence would be wanting." Blair. 
" Reflections that may drive away despair, cannot be wanting by 
him, who considers, how much life is now beyond the state of 
uninstructed nature." Ram. 129. In the following instance, this 
word is properly employed: — " Thou art weighed in the balances, 
and art found wanting" Daniel, chap. 5. The meaning is, — 
" Thou art found to want," or, "to be wanting in righteousness." 

7. The examples of errors in the use of the perfect participle, 
instead of the passed tense ; and in the passed tense, instead of the 
perfect, and sometimes the passive participle, are so numerous and 
varied, that, to dwell much on the subject, would be tedious: 
especially, as the learner must be supposed, at this time, to possess 
clear and comprehensive views of the difference between them. 
We shall therefore set down a few instances : first observing, that 
these solecisms seldom occur, unless when the verbs which ex- 
hibit them happen to be irregular. And here, we must remark, 
that when the verb to be, or, to have, (as an auxiliary) becomes 
necessary, on such occasions, each seems to require the perfect or 
passive participle after it; as, "I am torn;" "He has torn;" 
"The cloth is worn;" "We have worn it ;" " It has been ivorn." 
In none of these cases would the passed tense be admissible. We 
could not, with propriety, say, — "I am tore;" "The cloth is 
wore;" " He has wore iL" The phrases, "He has wrote;" "I 
have drank;" "The tree was shook;" are not better language 
than, "He has did;" "She was knew;" "The man was saiv?* 
These should be, done, knoivn, seem and, the former, — written^ 
drunk, shaken. t 

Swift and Johnson have, on some occasions, neglected to apply 



* Some grammarians denominate all verbs in the perfect tense, — passive 
participles. This distinction is not justifiable, except when they take the 
verb to be before them. See page 112. 



SYNTAX. 197 

those verbs with propriety : — " The manner /low* he handled his 
subject I have forgot." Apol. T. Tub. "forgotten" " He in- 
formed me that since he begun to addict his mind to serious 
studies." Ravi. 177. "began/ 1 "We are convinced that the 
author has broke his promise." Ram. 1. "has broken." 

8. The participle of the verb to mistake is sometimes improperly 
employed in a passive signification: thus Swift, — " The reflecter 
is entirely mistaken" Apol. T. TvJb. " To be mistaken, if they 
thought themselves liable to mistake." Ram. 31. " He blushed 
when he happened to find himself mistaken." Ram. 132. " It is 
possible to be mistaken ourselves; and to mislead and perplex 
others." Murray. " If I am not greatly mistaken" Pope. 

Each of these sentences contains a meaning contrary to what 
was intended. The verb to mistake means to misconceive, or, misun- 
derstand : and, when used in connection with nominatives, in the 
following manner, I mistake, 1 mistook, or, lam mistaking, it sig- 
nifies, that the person who employs it is committing, or, has com- 
mitted error in his judgment: but, the expression, " The reflecter 
is mistaken" means, that — "he is misunderstood by another:" and 
if, with Mr. Murray, we say, " It is possible for us to be mistaken} 1 ' 
the meaning is, " It is possible for us to be misunderstood by others:" 
although, the contrary is intended: namely, that ! 'We (ourselves) 
mistake, or, misunderstand." 

The ellipsis of the verb, — " He is poor; but, honest:" that is, 
*' He is poor ; but, he is honest." " I read and w T rite ; but, you do 
not :" that is, " but, you do not read and write." The participle, — 
41 John was speaking; but, James was not:" that is, "but, James 
was not speaking." 



* Hoxc is here misapplied. See Syntax of Adverbs, 



17* 



193 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Syntax of Adverbs, 

RULE L 

Adverbs do not govern other words: consequently, 
to provide precise and determinate rules, respecting their 
positions in composition, is rather difficult. They usually 
precede adjectives ; as, "The Mosaick history affords a 
very sublime description of the creation." They follow 
verbs active or neuter; as, "He wrote freely on the sub- 
ject:" and, in many instances, they come between the 
auxiliaries and principals of verbs; as, "We have suf- 
ficiently admired them;" "He has been fairly treat- 
ed:" &c. 

The situation of the adverb is a matter of no inconsiderable 
importance in writing: because, in the same sentence, with only 
a trivial change in the structure, this part of speech may not only 
assume a different position; but may be the cause of conveying a 
contrary meaning to that which it would impart in another situa- 
tion. As an example, we shall take the last written sentence, 
which, by being slightly varied, will, in some respects, contra- 
vene the general rule:* — "This part of speech may not only 
assume a different position." Suppose this sentence to have been 
thus written, — " This part of speech only may not assume a dif- 
ferent position:" here, the adverb only would limit the act of 
assuming a different position, to the expression, — this part of 
speech, which it seems to qualify ; thereby giving the following 
signification to the phrase: — "This part of speech, exclusively 
of any thing else, may assume a different position :" or, if a dif- 
ference were made in the punctuation, by placing a comma before 
and after the word only: thus, — " This part of speech, only y may 
not," &c. Here, we should be led to conclude, that the adverb 
only, and no other adverb, possessed the effects mentioned. In 

• The seu?e will, ifi a great measure, depend on the emphasis and punc- 
tuation. 



SYNTAX* 199 

the next place, had the sentence been so constructed, as to place 
the adverb only after the word assume, in the following man- 
ner:— "This part of speech may not assume, only a different 
position," the meaning would be, — " This part of speech may not 
assume any thing, except a different position." Indeed, the origi- 
nal construction is the only one which seems, satisfactorily, to 
convey the meaning intended: for, if the question be put, — 
" What more does this part of speech do, than assume a different 
position 1" The answer naturally follows, — "It may not only 
do so and so ; but, it may be the cause of conveying a contrary 
meaning." 

The expressions, — "I have only to remark;" and, " I only 
have to remark ;" convey very different significations. The for- 
mer means, that "I have but a remark to make:" — The latter 
signifies, that " I, and not another, have to remark." 

That no absolute rule can be given respecting the fixed posi- 
tions of this part of speech in sentences, is, from what has been 
advanced, pretty clear ly established. We shall therefore lay 
down a few examples of its improper uses, which may serve as a 
guide to the learner: while, at the same time, we must observe, 
thr.t the best mode to be pursued, respecting this part of speech, 
is, to place it as nearly as possible to the word which it limits or 
qualifies: and, to observe what the sense necessarily requires: — 
so that no doubt of the writer's meaning may exist in the reader's 
mind, on the first inspection. 

" Allow me, only, before I dismiss the subject, to observe." 
Blair. Led. 9. Notwithstanding the very appropriate punc- 
tuation of the sentence, it would perhaps have expressed the sense 
better, by saying, — "Allow me, before I dismiss the subject, 
only* to observe." " Sentences immoderately long always trans- 
gress some of the rules which I shall mention soon" Blair. 
Lect. 12. " which I shall soon mention." " Sentences acquire 
more vigor and energy when thus retrenched ; provided always, 
that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close, as to 
give dryness to our style." Blair. Lect. 12. Better thus,— 
" Sentences acquire more vigor, &c, provided that we always 
avoid running into the extreme of pruning so very closely," &c. 

* Merely, as an equivalent, would partially show this. Bee p. 115. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The word therefore is an adverb, when, without joining sen- 
tences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason," Murray's 
Gram. This should be, " The word therefore is an adverb, only 
when, without," &c. : that is, — "It is an adverb, only" or, " in 
no other instance, but, when thus used." The word only, as em- 
ployed in the original, implies a limitation of the word it, and 
therefore reasonably suggests the inquiry, — " What else, or be- 
sides the word therefore, gives the sense of, for that reason ?" 
" Time is observed generally to wear out sorrow." Barak No. 47. 
If the meaning be, that time generally wears out sorrovj, the origi- 
nal position will obtain: — if the sense be, that accordingly to gene- 
ral or usual observation, time wears out sorrow, the construction 
should have been, — "Time is generally observed," &c. "The 
manner how he handled his subject, I have now forgotten." 
Swift. The w r ord how, which occurs here, means, in what 
manner: therefore, the sentence must read, — "The manner, 
in what manner, he handled his subject." This should be, " The 
manner in which he handled his subject." " But, as time brings 
him forward into the world, he soon discovers, that he only 
shares fame or reproach with innumerable partners." Ramb. 
196. In the first part of this sentence, we are informed, that 
he only shares fame : but, subsequently, that he shares it with 
innumerable partners. " It is truly grateful to view the verdure 
of the fields ; but never so much so, as in the spring of the year." 
This sentence, read without the ellipsis which it involves, will 
stands thus: — "It is truly grateful to view, &c, but, never 
so much grateful, as in the spring of the year." Better thus, 
even by a repetition* of the adjective, — but, never so grateful, 
as in the spring of the year. 

1. The adjective pronoun such is frequently substituted for the 
adverb so, improperly; as, " I have not such a great desire as you." 
This should be, " I have not so great a desire as you." " I never 
heard him make such a silly answer :" " so silly an answer." When 
we intend to represent the general nature of the subject to which 
we allude, the word such is properly employed; as, " His man- 
ners are such, as none need be ashamed to imitate." But, when 
comparison is intended, the word so should be used ; as, " His 
manners are so genteel, that they invite imitation." This theory 



Tautology is preferable to inconsistency. 



SYNTAX. 201 

will be obvious, if we give the sentence a turn : thus, in the ex- 
pression, — " My desire is not so great as yours j" the word such 
would evidently be misapplied ; as, we could not properly say, 
" My desire is not such great as yours." 

2. The adverb there is often unnecessarily introduced at the 
commencement of a sentence ; as, " There are few traits in the 
human character, more despicable than ingratitude." The sen- 
tence would be better expressed, and the meaning as fully pre- 
sented, by omitting this redundant particle: thus, — "Few traits 
in the human character are more despicable than ingratitude." 

3. Among the many corruptions to which the English language 
has been subjected, we know of none more inconsistent than that 
common one, of employing the adverb never in place of ever; 
though their meanings are directly opposed to each other; as, 
" Though he were never so powerful." Swift. " If he had never 
so many enemies." Pope. In each phrase, the word should be, 
ever. 

4. In the sentence, t: Much money has been expended," Mr. 
Murray informs us, that the adverb much is an adjective. To 
this position, we can by no means subscribe : nay, we doubt, if 
the word much can, in any instance, assume the nature of an 
adjective. Most, if not all, of our lexicographers, so denominate 
this word, in consequence of its preceding a noun in the same 
manner as an adjective does : but, neither its appearance nor 
situation in a sentence could warrant the assumption, unless its 
essence and signification declare it to be such. If this word be 
an adjective, in the example produced, we must necessarily look 
for the nominative to the verb has been expended, in some other 
part of the sentence. Now, the word money is the only one 
which seems to constitute the nominative; and, therefore, the 
sentence is grammatically correct : because the word money is a 
noun, used only in a singular form ; and, on this occasion, we 
regret to be obliged to suppose, adroitly chosen by our author for 
a purpose too evident to need explanation : but, we apprehend, 
with little advantage to the pupil. The word much, when em- 
ployed in such positions as the above, signifies an abundance, 
or great quantity; and is never applied to nouns which are 
limited to the distinctions of number: hence, the following ex- 
pression appears to be correct : — u Much publick thanks is due/' 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In this example, the word muck, or its equivalent, is obviously 
a noun ; the nominative of the sentence ; and consequently no 
adjective. Further, — It does not describe any quality peculiar to 
the noun money, or thanks : and therefore is destitute of those 
characteristick features which distinguish an adjective. See 
Etymology of Adjectives. 

5. The word very is improperly placed before nouns, as it adds 
no further energy to the drift of a sentence, than what it other- 
wise possessed ; as, " These are the very rocks on which we 
split." " We are pleased with an author whose style flows like 
a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bottom." 
Blair. " I read this very sentence in an English newspaper." 
Cobbett. E. Grammar, page 141. As adverbs are principally 
employed for the purpose of qualifying the words to which they 
are connected, we may reasonably inquire, — " What are very 
rocks'?" "What is a very bottom V and, "What is a very 
sentence 1" The word very, when properly used, is just and 
seasonable, and adds important force and effect to expression; 
as in the following sentences : " He is very ardent in his pro- 
fessions ;" " He was very much affected at your misfortune." 

The word verriest is a gross corruption ; as, " He is the ver- 
riest fool on earth." This word has been much used by some 
of our modern writers : and, indeed, many of our present speak- 
ers, whose abilities are not lightly esteemed, have a strong pre- 
dilection for its employment. However, it should be avoided. 
Our language recognizes no such variation in the word very. 
We never hear the word verrier : and certainly, if the one be 
tolerated, so should the other : and, therefore, we may be justified 
in the exercise of the following phraseology, — "He is a verrier 
fool than you :" language, than which, none is more ridiculous 
or unmeaning. 

6. The adverb where is occasionally, but improperly used for 
a preposition and a relative; as, "We know of no administra- 
tion so rude, where murder is not viewed with horror:" u in 
which murder is not," &c. The cause is plain. This adverb 
relates to place only; and could not, with propriety, receive a 
position in this sentence. 

7. Doctor Johnson has justly observed, that the adverbs, hence f 



SYNTAX. 203 

tkeiwe, whence, here, there, and where, include and imply, each, a 
preposition : as, they mean, alternately, from this place, — from 
tlmt place, — from what place, — to, or, in this, or, ichich place, &c. 
We therefore improperly say, " These are the positions from 
whence he. drew his argument;" as the preposition must be su- 
perfluous. For this reason, we cannot properly say, " He left 
here yesterday;" as this would signify, — " He left in this place 
yesterday :" This should be, " He w r ent hence yesterday." 

8. The adverbs hither, thither, whither, when employed in de- 
scribing motion, are preferable to here, there, where; as* "He 
came hither, and went thither, in an honr :" " Whither does he 
travel*?" not, "He came here, and went there-" " Where does 
he travel V\ 

9. Two negatives, whether adverbs or not, destroy each other's 
eflicacy, when introduced in the same member of a sentence ; 
thus constituting an assertion equivalent to an affirmation; as, 
" I have not no money :" that is, — "I have money." But, when 
two negatives are employed in different members of the same 
sentence, — one forms a repetition of the other: or, rather, — the 
latter doubly enforces the former negation ; as, when in return to 
the question, "Have you any money V 1 the answer maybe, — 
"No, — I have not." 

The reason for which two negatives amount to an affirmative 
will be evident, when we reflect, that in. the sentence, ■' I have 
no money," the sense is clearly given; and, that the introduction 
of a second particle of negation must imply a contradiction to 
what the other maintains; Thus, "I have not, no money;" 
signifies, — " I have no money : — not so, — I have money." *! He 
will not go M?ipunished:" that is, " He will be punished." 

The following examples are suited to this rule : " Neither man 
nor woman cannot resist an engaging exterior." Chesterfield. 
Letters to his Son. No. 59. " can resist." "He never did me no 
injury:" " did me an injury" " I will not, in no wise, injure 
my friend:" " I will not, in any wise ;" or, " I will in no wise." 
«' Few can deny, that they have not admitted visions of a foolish 
nature ;" " that they have admitted." 

10. The expression, u Whether or no" is a corruption of, 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

N Whether or not." We properly say, ■— " Whether he will write 
or not;" as the meaning is, — "Whether he will write; or, 
whether he will not write." But, with no propriety can we say, 
M Whether he will write ; or, whether he will no write." 

The ellipsis of the adverb is thus employed: " He reads and 
writes gracefully:" that is, "He reads gracefully, and, he 
writes gracefully." u I breakfast and dine daily :" that is, u I 
breakfast daily, and dine daily." 



Syntax of Prepositions, 

RULE I 

Every Preposition, whether expressed or under- 
stood, must govern an objective case ; as, " The man 
to whom much is given, — from him, much will be 
required." "Give to him that asketh: and, from him 
that would borrow of thee, turn not away.' 1 

The violations to which this rule is liable are few, except in 
the use of the personal relative. The ensuing examples will 
suffice : — " Who does that book belong to V " Who will you give 
it to? 5 " Who does he inquire fori" "Evil companions are 
those who we cannot safely rely on ; nor are they those persons 
who we ought to associate with." In all these places, the relative 
ought to be whom ; as it is governed by a preposition at the con- 
clusion of each sentence. / 

Here, the learner must be informed, that this method of separa- 
ting the preposition from the noun or pronoun which it governs, 
though prevalent, in familiar conversation, is, at best, but pro- 
ductive of an ungraceful and enfeebling style: and should, on all 
occasions, be avoided. Indeed, every sentence should close with 
some word, on which the imagination may dwell ; so as to leave 
a sensible impression behind: thus conducting the reader to a 
harmonious period. This is what cannot occur, when the sen- 
tence terminates with a preposition, or any other particle that 



SYNTAX, 205 

does not produce an idea. The following are instances of wrong 
construction, in this particular : — " Color affords, perhaps, the 
simplest instance of beauty, and therefore the fittest to begin 
withy Blair. Lect. 5. "Warmed with the idea he had laid 
hold of." Led. 22. " This oratorical climax ought not always 
to be sought after." Led. 12. "Much of the confusion which 
we meet with." Murray. By a slight change in each sentence, 
the preposition may be placed, so as to make the language much 
more perspicuous and dignified. Thus, instead of saying, 
" Much of the confusion which we meet with :" we should say, — 
u Much of the confusion with which we meet." 

1. Prepositions are frequently misused for each other. This 
generally occurs, when too little attention is bestowed on the im- 
port of the accompanying phrase ; or, on the peculiarity of the 
subjoined verb ; as, " In perfect accordance to your views, I 
prolonged the debate." Canning. " With your views," would 
have been better, in this instance. "He has persevered on seeing 
his foe; and has determined in proffering his friendship." 
Steele. " in seeing his foe ; and has determined on proffering 
his friendship." " His dislike of such conduct proceeds from 
his abhorrence to the cause." Better thus, " His dislike to such 
conduct proceeds from his abhorrence of the cause." "Connect 
one sentence vrith another," may signify, — that, one is to accoiml 
pany the other : or, be joined with it, to something else. " Connect 
one to another," means, that one is to be attached to another with- 
out the slightest implication of the idea of accompaniment. "I 
differ from you," is the contrary of, " I differ with you." 

Here, we must observe, that as no decisive rules can be given 
on this point, to lay down examples, which, at most, would exhi- 
bit only a difference in words and their applications, would be an 
almost endless task. The learner is therefore, in conjunction 
with an adherence to the tenor of the foregoing note, directed to 
consult the best dictionaries, on such occasions. 

The ellipsis of the preposition : — " He raised his voice against- 
crime, cruelty, and oppression:" — that is, " against crime, 
against cruelty, and against oppression." " We spoke to the 
men and women ;" that is, — " to the men and to the women." 



18 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Syntax of Conjunctions. 

RULE L 

Conjunctions generally connect sentences which 
are similar in their structures, with respect to Mood, 
Tense, and Case ; as, " The son of wisdom fears the 
Lord, and serves him day and night;" "He and I 
were instructed:" "Between him and me, no difference 
exists." 



The ensuing exposition will sufficiently illustrate this rule ; — 
u The son of wisdom fears the Lord, and will serve him" In 
this construction, the former member of the sentence is expressed 
in the present tense, and the latter, in the future. But, this devia- 
tion from the precedent can properly prevail, only when the no- 
minative is repeated : because, as those particles are the hinges 
of connection or partition, by which sudden transitions can be 
effected in language, they consequently imply a repetition of the 
structure which precedes the introduction of each. Therefore, 
when a change is necessary in the formation of the sentence, the 
nominative should be repeated ; as, " The son of wisdom fears 
the Lord, and he will serve him." In the expression, " He and 
me were instructed," the impropriety is conspicuous: because, 
there is no word to govern me in the objective case. This should 
be, " He and / were instructed." Neither do we properly say, 
<{ Between him and /;" nor, " Between he and me ;" as the pre- 
position between must necessarily govern one pronoun expressed ; 
and the other, by being understood to precede it : thus, " Be- 
tween him, and between me" 

The following examples are extracted from a respectably con- 
ducted journal: — "Though much money has been bestowed, 
and many efforts made to produce that desirable end." This 
sentence, when read accordingly to grammatical rules, signifies, 



SYNTAX. 207 

" Though much money has been bestowed, and many efforts has 
been made," &c. 

" By either of these, new sources of information are opened ; and 
the mutual dependence of one country upon another more gener- 
ally felt." As mutual dependence is a new nominative, and, of a 
different number from the former, a new and an appropriate verb 
should correspond with it. Thus, — "By either of these, new 
sources are opened : and the mutual dependence of one country 
upon another is more generally felt." " No preference has, or 
will be given:" — " has been, or will be given." "It can, and, 
indeed, ought to be received:" — " It can be, and, indeed ought to 
be," &c. 

1. As conjunctions are of various kinds, they necessarily claim 
connections with different moods. Some grammarians pretend 
to make nice distinctions with regard to the applications of this 
part of speech, in its agreement with the mood to which it is at- 
tached: but> few of those distinctions will, when minutely ex- 
amined, be found to obtain. The best rule to be observed is, — 
When the conjunction introduced does, of its self, or, in connec- 
tion with the sense which it is employed to express, — impart the 
idea of contingency, or doubt, — the conjunctive termination 
ought to be employed : otherwise, it is improper. 

2. The conjunctions which generally require verbs in the sub- 
junctive mood are if, lest, unless, except, whether; as, "If he love 
me, he will show his friendship;" " Richard will interfere, lest his 
friend suffer injury;" "Unless he come shortly, his presence will 
not avail." The reason is, — each sentence* implies a doubt, and 
involves an ellipsis ; and, if supplied with the necessary words, it 
will be found to require the above construction; thus, "If he 
love," means, "If he should love:" and so of the others. 

Conjunctions are sometimes omitted, but understood; as, "Had 
I received timely information:" that is, "If I had received." 

" Were I to love my precious soul 
" As much as Jesus loved the same, 

" My endless life would ever roll 
" In praises of his glorious name." 

3. On another occasion, we have remarked, that a verb, in its 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

primitive state, maintains a future, as well as a present significa- 
tion: and this property is peculiarly observable in the use of a 
verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood ; as, " If he 
desire my influence, he shall have it;" that is, "If he should 
{hereafter) desire." But, when neither contingency nor futurity 
is denoted, the employment of the verb, in the subjunctive mood, 
seems rather formal and affected; and is seldom introduced by 
good speakers, however prevalent its usage may be. See page 87. 

The following sentences are erroneous in this particular ; be- 
cause the positions which they advance are granted, and admit of 
neither doubt nor contingency: "Although the efficient cause be 
true." Blair. Led. 3. " Though there be a manifest difference 
in the tenses." Led 9. "Although he be a man of learning and 
virtue." Siviftfs Letters to Pultney. In each phrase, the verb 
ought to be in the indicative mood. See page 94. 

The author should not here feel satisfied that he had performed 
his duty, did he not summon the attention of the learner to the 
purport of the much mistaken views, and, he must add, inconsitent 
theory of Mr. Murray on this point. After arriving at the general 
conclusion, that, " when the subject is of a dubious and contingent 
nature, and, when the verb has reference to future time; then, 
and then only, is the conjunctive termination applied with pro- 
priety;" — he further, (and, in accordance with this discipline,) 
furnishes the following specimens of appropriate agreement : " If 
thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself;" "He has a hard 
heart; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffer;" "He will 
maintain his principles, though he lose his estate;" "Whether he 
succeed or not, his intention is laudable;" "If he be not prosperous, 
he will not repine ;" " If a man smite his servant and he die" 
i( In all these examples," continues our author, "the things signi- 
fied by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But, in 
the instances which follow, future time is not referred to,* nor 
can an auxiliary be inserted; and, therefore, a different construc- 
tion takes place ; c If thou livest virtuously, thou art happy ;' ' Un- 
less he means what he says, he is doubly faithless ;' l If he allows 
the excellence of virtue, he does not regard her precepts ;' 'If 
thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayest.' " 



• On this mode of expression, see Note 4, Rule II, Verbs. 



SYNTAX, 209 

This puerile play upon words, thus situated, is really too frivo- 
Jous for serious comment. Had Mr. Murray reflected, that 
adults, as well as youths, would be likely to examine this theory, 
and bring its contents to the light of reason, he might, with a 
glance, have foreseen the result of such unguarded speculation. 
Could he not easily have seen, that his former examples, under 
the conjunctive form, would exclude the reception of an auxiliary, 
with as little ceremony as the latter ! And, could he not easily 
have observed, under this circumstance, that as little uncertainty, 
and, in some instances, as much futurity, are attached to those 
subjects signified by the verbs in the one instance, as in the other : 
— provided, that the sentences were similarly constructed ! And, 
though last, yet, not least, in the train of accidents, — could he not 
instantly have seen, that in all those last mentioned examples, 
auxiliaries cannot only be inserted, but are really understood : and, 
that therefore, all his proposed variations in theory, were com- 
pletely visionary! Instance, — "If thou livest," should be, "If 
thou live;" that is, " If thou dost or shouldst live." This remark 
will answer for the other examples. See Note, page 94. 

4. While accumulating words which are connected by a con- 
junction, and dependent on a preposition, through which their 
meanings are to be conveyed, caution should be observed, that 
those words be suited to the sense for which they are intended. 
The following sentences are inaccurate in this respect: — "He 
despised and laughed at her:" Fable of the Wolf and Crane. This 
language is equivalent to, " He despised at her, and he laughed at 
her." "Do not interrupt your study by dipping and deviating 
into other books." Chesterfield. We deviate from, but not 
into. " We have frequent opportunities of marking, proving, and 
examining into the effects of nature." We may justifiably say, 
" examining into the effects of nature;" but, not with propriety, — 
marking, or proving into the effects of nature." 

In the connection of a number of particulars, the conjunctive 
particles need not be multiplied, as they are always understood : 
yet, some instances require them ; as, when the writer or speaker 
intends to give more effect and emphasis to his words : as, " The 
chief security against the fruitless anguish of impatience, must 
arise from frequent reflections on the wisdom and goodness of 
18* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

God, in whose hands are riches and poverty, honor and disgrace, 
pleasure and pain, and life and death." 

5. The conjunction but is sometimes improperly used in con- 
nection with the words that and what; as, "There is no fear, 
but that he will act an upright part." " All books, but what are 
vicious, afford some benefit to mankind." The following positions 
will show, that the conjunction is superfluous : — " That he will 
act an- upright part, there is no fear." "All books, but those which 
are vicious, afford," &c. It is also improperly introduced in- 
stead of than; as, "He soon perceived, that his new acquaintance 
was no other but his old friend in another dress:" "than his old 
friend," 

6. The English language contains many correspondent con- 
junctions, expressed or understood. First, the words, although, 
or though, and yet, or nevertheless ; as, " Although he is rich and 
powerful; yet, he is not silly enough to be vain." " Though she 
is poor ; nevertheless, not mercenary." 

2. As — as: usually employed in comparison; as, "Ke is as 
good as his word." 

3. Whether — or: as, " Whether he has arrived or not, I cannot 
determine." 

4. As— -so: expressive of comparison; or relating to promise:—- 
"As he has promised; so will he perform." 

5. So — as: expressing a comparison of equality; as, " He has 
received directions, so as to enable him to proceed correctly." 

6. Such is used with as: " Such misfortune as this seldom 
occurs." 

7. Either — or: as, "Either my friend or I will visit you." 

8. Neither — nor: as, "Neither William nor Robert was pres- 
ent." 

9. More is followed by than; as, "This is more lovely than 
that." 

We sometimes discover errors in the Use of the words neither 
aad nor, in writings of superior merit. Thus, Johnson: "No 



SYNTAX. 211 

man can lose what he neither possesses or imagines himself to 
possess :" " nor imagines." " They have no proper perfect tense, 
or one which distinguishes an action just now finished, from an 
action which was finished some time ago." Blair. Led. 9. "nor 
one which distinguishes." 

With respect to this latter sentence, we must observe, that the 
negation implied in the former part of it, has the same effect as if 
the word neither had been employed : because, the writer intended 
to represent, that, "They have neither a perfect tense, nor any 
other which distinguishes," &c. : and yet, in consequence of em- 
ploying an improper conjunction, he says the contrary : that is, 
" They have no perfect tense, or they have one which distin- 
guishes," &c. 

7. To ascertain whether or or nor should be preferred, is, in 
some cases, attended with difficulty ; as, "If the sinner will not 
alter his life or conduct, he must perish." Had nor been intro- 
duced on this occasion, it would seem to repeat the former nega- 
tion more peremptorily r however, we must remark, that in such 
constructions, if the word either can be properly understood, it 
must be followed by its attendant conjunction, or, as in the ex- 
ample given. Thus, — "If the sinner will not alter (either) 
his life or conduct." 

8. The conjunction than, so frequently used in making com- 
parisons, is generally followed by a nominative case; as, " John 
is wiser than he ;" " He that comelh after me is mightier than /;" 
that is, " than he is :" " than I am" The sentence, " I love James 
more than him :" signifies, that, " I love James more than I love 
him" But, the phrase, " I love James more than he," meansi 
that, " I love James more than he loves him." (James.) 

9. When, after affirmative adjuncts, we introduce a negative 
one, a conjunction disjunctive should be employed, — not a copu- 
lative. Instead of, " His observations applied to the exercise of 
religion, morality, and good breeding ; and, not to the examina- 
tion of political creeds," we should say, but, not to the examina- 
tion, &c. 

The ellipsis of the conjunction, — " The prudent, the virtuous, 
the generous, and the just, shall experience their reward;" that is, 
" The prudent, and the virtuous, and the generous, and the just." 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Syntax of Interjections. 



RULE I. 

Interjections some times take Objective Cases after 
them; as, "Ah! me; 77 "Oh! me." But, this apparent 
government of case results from the implied introduction 
of Verbs or Prepositions. For example, " Ah ! me," 
may signify, "Ah! what has befallen to me /" or some 
similar expression. 

The ellipses of the interjection : — " Alas ! my friend and com- 
panion!" that is, "Alas! my friend! Alas I my "companion !" 



SYNTAX. 213 



Recapitulating Rule. 

The different members, adjuncts, and dependents of 
a sentence, should sustain a strict correspondence of 
sense; so as to preserve consistency throughout the 
structure. The neglect of this is obvious in the follow- 
ing instance: "This is much the same with the Socrat- 
ick method, by which that philosopher silenced the 
sophists of his age." Blair. Led. 32. What philoso- 
pher ? We know, or rather, we apprehend the mean- 
ing ; as Socrates was most probably meant. However, 
as the language does not so imply, we must conclude, 
that the Socratick method is that which is designated a 
philosopher. 

As the rules peculiar to the different parts of speech, however 
judiciously contrived and aptly illustrated, cannot embrace and 
exhibit every deviation from the principles of grammatical ac- 
curacy, we have conceived, for the learner's observance, and 
further improvement, the plan of embodying, under the head of 
the above synoptical arrangement, a number of defective phrases. 

" All the rules of Latin Syntax cannot be applied to 
our language. Many of those rules arose from the par- 
ticular forms of their language." Blair. Lect. 9. 
Whose language ? Here is a gross misuse of the pro- 
noun their : because, expressed or understood, it refers 
to no antecedent. Doctor Blair probably meant the lan- 
guage of the Latins : however, no such inference can 
be extracted from his words; as, in this place, he neither 
previously nor subsequently mentions the language of 
any particular persons. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Before I proceed further, I shall present the house 
with an extract." Pitt. In the first place, — "to 
proceed further" is tautologous language ; as the word 
further implies a procedure in its self. In the next 
place, — the language, " I shall present the house with 
an extract," is, in point of sense, faulty ; as it signifies, 
that, " I shall present the house with, or in company with t 
an extract :" and, if so, to something else, must be the 
unavoidable conclusion. Should this interpretation be 
denied, let the sentence, so far as its real meaning is con- 
cerned, be analytically considered; and then shall we 
perceive, that the intention of the speaker was, to " pre- 
sent an extract to the house:" or, to "present to the 
house, an extract:" — not, to "present the house with" 
one, to any thing else; as the original phrase abso- 
lutely implies. 

The foreigner and epicure who, to insure a proper 
dressing for his eggs, delivered his watch to the cook, 
with directions to " boil the eggs with the watch," found 
that he had made a ludicrous and vexatious application 
of this word, when he discovered, that agreeably to his 
direction, though contrary to his expectation, the watch 
had been boiled with the eggs. 

" The learner is presented with a view of general 
maxims." Murray. Gram. 37th ed., page 37. See 
pages 132 and 205. 

" We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust 
in God." Atterbury. This expression conveys the 
contrary sense of that which it was prepared to express : 
that is, " We seldom see those forsaken who trust in 
God: — or, we ever, that is, always see them forsaken" 



SYNTAX. 215 

This should be, "We seldom, if ever :" or, "Wesel 
dom or never." 

"Though the conjunction is commonly used to 
connect sentences together. 11 Murray. " To connect 
together" or, " To gather together" is, in general, a 
tautologous form of expression. Such constructions are 
never employed, unless when the contrary, on other 
occasions, may be inferred : and few, we imagine, would 
be so incautious as to say, "part, or separate sentences 
asunder." 

" He lent me money, but I returned it back again" 
To return, in this instance, signifies to give back; 
"we should therefore say, "He lent me money, but I 
returned it." The expression, " I returned it again" is 
correct, only, when the act has occurred more than once. 

" This kind of writing cannot employ giants to snatch 
away a lady from the nuptial rites." Ram. 4. " to 
snatch a lady from" would have been sufficient. 

" Neither are the abilities of any human writer suffi- 
cient to supply a continued run of unmixed sublime 
conceptions." Blair. Led. 4. As we are acquainted 
with no writers but human ones, — no necessity appears 
for the introduction of the expression, "human writers." 

The phrases, — "I am now writing," — "I am now 
asserting," &c, so frequent amongst speakers and wri- 
ters, are improper. The participle expresses present 
time, without the aid of the adverb now. 

" This was the Chancellor 1 s opinion, whose decision 
was confirmed." The word whose, grammatically refers 
to opinion, and not to Chancellor, as may be supposed. 
Chancellor is in the possessive case. This should be, 



316 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

!l This was the opinion of the Chancellor, whose opinion 
was confirmed." Seepage 130. 

The expression, " He is getting a good boy," means, 
that, " He is procuring, or receiving a good boy." Ac- 
cordingly to the usual acceptation of this phrase, we 
should say, He is becoming a good boy." 

The phrase, "possibly may, or can" is tautologous 
language : may, or can, in its self, denotes possibility. 

" This was a strong reason, why the measure failed." 
Goldsmith. Here, the word why means, — for what 
reason: therefore, the sentence is equivalent to, "This 
was a strong reason, for what reason, the measure 
failed." Better thus, " This was a strong reason, for 
which the measure failed." 

A respectably conducted monthly magazine (for 
1836) presents the following advertisements from per- 
sons engaged in scholastick pursuits: — "Miss M. con- 
tinues to board and educate young ladies in English, 
Geography," &c. " In Mr. C.'s establishment, young 
gentlemen are boarded and instructed in English, Latin, 
Greek," &c. A reference to the syntactical rule on 
conjunctions (page 206) will convince the student, that 
though young ladies and gentlemen may be " instructed 
in English" &c, they cannot, at least, so systematically, 
be " boarded in English" and the other branches of 
education. 

" None of the ancients seem to have well understood 
this problem." The word well is here superfluously 
introduced. ■• To have understood" it, was sufficient 
" Perfectly understood," is equally objectionable. 

M Number is the consideration of an object ; as, one or 



SYNTAX. 217 

more." Murray. How number can be said to be the 
consideration of, even one object, is rather difficult to 
conceive : but, it certainly is not " the consideration of 
an object; as, more." 

The very common advertisement, " Lodgings for 
single gentle-urns" is incomprehensible : "for a single 
gentleman" is little better. The'one speaks of single 
men; or, singular plurals, if we may so express the 
phrase : the other, necessarily implies, a double gentle- 
man. Why not say, " Lodgings for gentlemen :" or, 
44 for a gentleman" as the case may require? — a con- 
struction which cannot fail, effectually, to exclude female 
accommodation ; — if such be the advertiser's object. 
Note: To those who would support the propriety of this 
phraseology, by saying, that by the expression, " single 
gentleman" is intended, an unmarried man; we would 
observe, that while we judge of the literal meaning of 
language by the words employed, in preference to the 
latent intentions of the speaker, and, while we know, that 
a matrimonial connection does not render an individual 
more dual (if the expression be permitted) than he pre- 
viously was, we must reject so puerile a vindication of 
this construction. 

A review and literary journal, for 1801, thus speaks 
of Mr. Murray's grammar, &c: — "Mr. Murray's gram- 
mar, as well as his other publications, has received the 
uniform approbation of literary characters and journal- 
ists. We do not hesitate warmly to recommend them 
to the instructers of youth, in every part of the United 
States, as eminently conducive to pure morality and 
religion, and to the acquisition of a correct and ele- 
gant style. They deserve to take place of all other 
19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

works of the same kind which are now used in our 
schools." 

While considering this character of Mr. Murray'* 
grammar, a suitable opportunity presents its self for the 
application of the admonitory adage, " Charity should 
begin at home." Need we explain, — by observing, that 
those who undertake to pronounce critical opinions; and t 
to confer eulogy on the merits of such a work, should 
be competent to the undertaking : at least, so far as gram- 
matical and intelligible language is concerned ? In this 
instance, we have, not only a gross violation of simple 
syntactical arrangement, but, even an obvious departure 
from that consistency so peculiar to ordinary expression. 
By that implied repetition of the verb which the review- 
ers' construction demands, the language is, — " Mr. 
Murray's grammar has received, as well as his other 
publications has received the uniform approbation," &c. 
See Rule 6. Syntax of Sub. page 137. And, as if to 
banish all room for misapprehension, as to the particular * 
construction to which the verb applies, we perceive the 
intended nominative announced through the medium of 
the pronouns them and they, which refer to it. The 
possessive pronoun his, also improperly refers to Mr. 
Murray's grammar. See page 130. 

We cannot conclude these remarks without observing, 
that however beneficial the purport of this recommenda- 
tion may appear to be, to "the instructers of youth," it 
seems to lack much of its designed importance, while 
subjected to its present interpretation, as a " character of 
a grammar," as Mr. Murray has been pleased to re- 
ceive it. 

The expressions, — " blend together," — "pursue fur- 



SYNTAX. 219 

ther," as employed by Mr. Murray; and the phrases, 
"fill it full,"— "drop it down," — "raise it up," — 
"fall down," — "must necessarily," &c, are more or less 
tautologous. 

The ensuing expressions are incongruous : — " Let 
my latter end be like his ;" " The latter end of the 
week ;" " The latter end of the year;" &c. Each case 
supposes a former end. We should therefore say, 
"Let my end be like his;" "The latter part of the 
week:" &c. 

The word hard is frequently applied for difficult ; as, 
w This is a hard question. " Difficulty refers to the 
operations of the mind generally : — hardness, to the co- 
hesion of matter, in point of solidity. How should we 
surprise at the expression, — " This is a soft question !" 
and yet, the introduction of the one necessarily implies 
the existence of the other. 

A certificate signed by two eminent physicians says, 
" We certify that the bearer D. S. is totally blind.' 
If not blinds the individual sees : — if blind, he sees not 
See list of Adjectives, page 52. 

The common place expression, " A presents his com- 
pliments to B, and entreats the honor of his company to 
dinner at 4 o'clock on Monday, the 13th instant," is im- 
properly constructed. The word compliments, as the 
plural of compliment, originates in the verb to comply : 
and, as the co?nply-menl$, (compliments) with the invita- 
tion, emanate from B, — to attribute them to A must be 
improper. A is the inviter ; — B, the comply er. We 
may properly say, " A presents his respects to B :" to 
which B may properly respond, (if disposed to aceede) 
by saying, " B ] s compliments to A" &c. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The expression, " A begs leave to inform the publick, n 
is, in point of style, faulty. This should be, " A takes 
leave to inform the publick." We do not beg a leave, 
permission, or liberty, which our announcement of the 
information proves, that we have already taken, without 
solicitation. 

" Should farther proof be wanted, in order to convince 
the reader that our tourist has travelled further into 
the interior than is generally supposed." Travels of 
Mungo Park. 

Were the words farther and further to exchange 
places in this sentence, the. language would be correct 
Farther relates to distance or space. Further, — to 
progression or continuity, — mentally or morally. 

" A certain power is vested in the governor, who 
holds his office for seven years ; at the expiration of which 
another is chosen, who succeeds him, and continues 
office for the same time." Blackstone. 

Same denotes identity. Its application, in the present 
position, furnishes a conspicuous instance of absurdity. 
The governor " who succeeds him," who is admitted to 
have held office for two years, may continue in office 
for a* similar length of time, — not, "for the same 
time." 

" The relative who, when it follows than, is always 
in the objective case ; even though the pronoun, if sub- 
stituted in its place, would be in the nominative." Dr. 
Lowth. See page 167. 

This sentence affords an instance, not less loose in its 
structure, than untenable in its import. The language 



SYNTAX. 221 

is tautologous, Stibstitution, in its self, denotes changed, 
or changeable occupancy ; with respect to place, position, 
or event: &c. We may properly say, " though the 
pronoun, if substituted for it, would," &c, or, "though 
the pronoun, if put in its place, would," &c. 

At a late legal examination, a counsellor, "learned 
in the law," addressed a witness in the following lan- 
guage : — 

'• In the libeller's letter of the 4th instant, you are 
charged with having been concerned w T ith the accused, 
in defrauding the government. Is that true ?" 

11 Yes !" answered the facetious witness. 

Counsellor. — " I admire your candor, while I lament 
your imprudence: - — your manly answer saves time; — 
you acknowledge your guilt, — I shall therefore ask 
you no further questions." 

Witness. — U I deny your conclusion: — I acknow- 
ledge no guilt!" 

Counsellor. — "My lord!" (addressing the court) 
" will you permit such trifling, — did not the witness, as 
plainly as words can convey sentiments, admit his 
guilt?" 

Judge. — •■ The court is satisfied that he did: and, he 
shall not, now, be suffered to recal his reply ; deny 
his deliberate assertion ; and insult the court, by such 
unbecoming tergiversation: — What say you, gentle- 
men of the jury ; — did not the witness acknowledge his 
guilt; when, in answer to the query, (involving the 
charge) — * Is that true?' — he replied in the affirma- 
tive r 

19 # 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Jury. — " Certainly, — if words have meaning." 

Witness. — " With due deference to the decision of the 
court and jury, I entreat, that the reporter be instructed 
to read the question put by the learned counsel." 

This having been performed, — the witness observed, 
that, " though guiltless, he should have sworn falsely, 
had he replied in the negavtive ; as the query served, 
merely, to elicit the truth or falsehood of the charge 
for fraud, — not the fraud implied in the charge." 

Need we say, the "learned gentry" appeared grave, 
nonplused, and sullen ; while the audience and witness 
exercised their risible muscles, with no inconsiderable 
merriment, at the expense of the misinterpreters ! 

The phrase, " I want two spoonfuls or handfuls of 
fruit," though common, and therefore partially tolerated, 
seems to be improperly constructed. If, by this expres- 
sion, we mean, — The quantity which two spoons or 
hands contain, wherifull, — we should say, "Two spoons 
or hands full" Spoon, or hand, as a noun, admits of a 
plural construction : — full, as an adjective, does not. 

The words hand and full, when exhibited as a com- 
pounded word, by our lexicographers, is, we apprehend, 
introduced, merely, in conformity to usage of long stand- 
ing; — not, from conviction of its correctness. 



SYNTAX. 223 



Remarks on Parsing. 



Some grammarians, among whom is Mr. Murray, 
have offered, to the consideration of the student, speci- 
mens of what is commonly denominated Parsing : in 
order, as they say, " to prove his knowledge of the parts 
of speech, and the rules for forming them into sentences ; 
and, to render the manner in which they should be exer- 
cised familiar to him." 

Without impeding the progress of our comment, to 
consider the impracticability of the two former attain- 
ments, we take leave to remark, that in Mr. Murray's 
work, which is, confessedly, a compilation of matter, 
selected from several writers, and exhibited as the result 
of so much adopted theory, on separate heads; and 
where, consequently, no clash of opinions could exist ; 
such a course might- have been introduced with pro- 
priety ; nay, with advantage to the pupil : had the speci- 
mens of Parsing therein advanced, been copiously and 
correctly effected. But, in a work, such as the present, 
where, throughout almost every page, a collision of 
sentiment on previous theories prevails; and where, 
consequently, the most minute investigations of words, 
their positions, their influence, and due arrangements 
occur ; circumstances are furnished, which, in our opin- 
ion, constitute a sufficient pretext, for declining the 
pursuit of a course, productive of little, if of any benefit 
to the learner: who, if well acquainted with the doc- 
trine already presented to his views, will,' we apprehend, 
experience no disappointment, at the exclusion of so dry 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

and uninteresting a recapitulation, as the disposal of a 
few parts of speech, and their often times tokl positions 
and influence, can afford. On the subject of Parsing, 
the author's Abridgment, now being prepared for the 
press, will afford the necessary information. 

Having insinuated, that a want of copiousness and 
correctness prevails, in the accomplishment of the 
specimens of Parsing advanced by Mr. Murray, we 
shall, notwithstanding our aversion to an indulgence 
in such a proceeding, exhibit the defects alleged; by 
submitting a sentence under his system of Parsing, with 
remarks thereon ; and thus afford the learner an oppor- 
tunity of judging, how far this charge can be sustained : 

" ' They who forgive, act nobly.' n 

" They is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the 
plural number, and nominative case. (Decline it.) Who 
is a relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (De- 
cline it.) Forgive is an irregular verb active, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and third person plural. (Re- 
peat the present tense, &c.) Act is a regular verb active, 
indicative mood, present tense, and third person plural. 
(Repeat, &c.) Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Repeat 
the degrees of comparison") See Murray's Grammar. 
37th ed., page 216. 

In this arrangement, which, on the whole, is rather 
unintelligibly conducted, the first defect which presents 
its self to our notice is, the neglect of stating to what 
verb the pronoun they is the nominative. The second 
is, that the relative who is declared to be a nominative 
also : but, to what verb, we are uninformed. These 
positions being granted, as our author doubtlessly de- 
sired, we are supplied with two nominatives to one and 



SYNTAX. 225 

the same verb : (forgive:) an adjustment on which, we 
presume, our author little calculated when he wrote : and 
which, we are satisfied to imagine, a little more reflec- 
tion would have induced him to withdraw. Here is the 
result of considering a relative a nominative.* See 
Etymology and Syntax of Pronouns: pages 55, 152, 
.180, and 188. 

The third defect is, that of assigning to verbs the prop- 
erties of number and person. See Etymology of Verbs, 
page 67. 

The fourth is, that the objects of the active verbs for- 
give and act, as comprised in the word offences, or inju- 
ries^ — understood to the first, — and, in the word part, 
or some equivalent, — to the second, are not explained or 
exhibited : a circumstance which marks the parsing un- 



* The author, here, takes leave to express his regret, that his 
theory of the relative (so far as the exclusion of that particle 
from the functions of a nominative is involved) has not been 
favored with the approbation of a few respectable authorities. 
Feeling, however, that under any circumstances, its exhibition 
cannot be attended with even the slightest practical inconvenience, 
he has conceived the propriety of preserving it: — concluding, 
with great deference, that, as yet, no sufficient reason to induce 
its suppression has been submitted. In extenuation of his perti- 
nacity on this point, he may not inappropriately observe, (on a 
recurrence to Mr. Murray's theory, as cited on page 152 of this 
work, and which the inquiring student will be pleased to recon- 
sult,) that, as in the sentence, — " Tlie man or the women who 
committed the crime must suffer," — no variation in the relative 
occurs, by which the true antecedent may be discovered, — 
whether it be " the man" in the singular number, and masculine 
gender: or li the women" in the plural number, and feminine 
gender; — the person and antecedency of the relative cannot be 
determined : and, consequently, the non-existence of its nomina- 
tival functions becomes palpable. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pardonably deficient, in perspicuity: Thus, — "They 
who forgive, (offences) act a noble part:" but, more com- 
pendiously expressed, in the original. 

This exposition supports the view which we have enter- 
tained, as to the unimportance of parsing, generally: nor 
can we avoid observing, that the pother too frequently exci- 
ted on this subject, among the sciolous adventurers of our 
theme, is characterized in its proper light, only, when it 
is designated a finical and ostentatious parade of practical* 
pedantry. In proof of this, we lament to observe, that 
the great end and aim of English Grammar, (that of en- 
abling its votaries to speak and write the language with 
propriety) is seldom, if ever, attained, by the clamorous, 
cavilling, and immatured disputations, of those who fre- 
qnently rank amongst the most prominent of its mis- 
guided advocates. 

JE3* In order to facilitate the reception of the doctrine 
inculcated throughout this work, the following few speci- 
mens of parsing may be admitted, for the gratification of 
those who consider it, in any degree, important : — 

" I hope he will believe, that I have not acted improp- 
erly." 

J is a personal pronoun, — of the singular number, — 
of either the masculine or feminine gender, as the con- 
struction may demand ; — the nominative case, (Decline 
it) and, of the first person. Hope is a regular verb neu- 
ter, — in the indicative mood, — of the present tense; and 
agrees with its nominative case "J," agreeably to Rules 
I. of Verbs, which says, &c. (Repeat the Rule.) He 
is a personal pronoun, — of the singular number, — of 
the masculine gender, — the nominative case, (Decline 



SYNTAX. 227 

it) and, of the third person, agreeing with its antecedent, 
(suppose John) understood; accordingly to Rule I., Syn- 
tax of Pronouns. Will believe, is a regular verb active, — 
in the indicative mood, — in the first future tense, (Re- 
peat the Tense) and agrees with its nominative case "Ae," 
agreeably to Rule I. of Verbs, which says, &c. That 
is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, and refers to its 
noun assertion, (understood) which is governed in the 
objective case, by the active verb "will believe" agree- 
ably to Rule II. of Verbs, which says, &c. : and, is 
thus explained by transposition, — "I have not acted im- 
properly; — I hope, he will believe that:" (assertion.) 
See word that, page 59. J, as before stated, is a personal 
pronoun, &c. Have acted is here a regular verb neuter, — 
in the indicative mood, — in the perfect tense, (Repeat the 
Tense) and agrees with its nominative "/," accordingly 
to Rule I. of Verbs, which says, &c. (Repeat the 
Rule.) Not is an adverb of negation. Improperly — an 
adverb of quality, in which is comprised the noun man- 
ner, or some equivalent, (thus, — " I have not acted in 
an improper manner" See dissertation on the distinc- 
tion between active and neuter verbs; Rule II., Syntax 
of Verbs ; Notes 1 and 2. 



11 Let the scholars perform their duty." 

Let is an irregular verb active, — in the imperative 
mood ; and agrees with its nominative case thou or you, 
understood; as, "Let (thou or you) the scholars," &c: or, 
" Do (thou or you) let the scholars," &c, : but, perhaps, 
more comprehensively exhibited in the equivalent con- 
struction; — "Permit thou," — or, "Do thou permit the 
scholars to perform their duly." (See Conjugation of 



223 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the Imperative Mood: and Note 11 to Rule II., Syntax 
of Verbs.) The is the definite article, and agrees with 
its attendant noun scholars, agreeably to Rule I., 
Syntax of Articles. Scholars, — a, substantive com- 
mon, — of the plural number, — of the common gen- 
der, — in the objective case, third person, and governed 
by the active verb " let, 1 agreeably to Rule II. of 
Verbs, which says, &c.: and of the third person. (De 
dine it) Perform is an active verb, in the infinitive 
mood, and is so influenced by the preceding verb "let." 
See, again, Note 11, Rule II., Syntax of Verbs. Their 
is a personal pronoun, — of the plural number, — com- 
mon gender, — possessive case, — and third person: 
agreeing with its antecedent " scholars" accordingly to 
Rule I., Syntax of Pronouns. Duty is a substantive 
common, — of the singular number, — neuter gender, — - 
objective case, [Decline it) governed by the active verb 
"perform" and of the third person. 

" This opinion is extracted from a respectably conduct- 
ed journal." 

This is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, and refers 
to its noun " opinion" agreeably to Rule I., Syntax of 
Adjectives, which says, &c. (Repeat the Rule.) Opinion 
is a noun or substantive common, — of the singular num- 
ber, — neuter gender, — nominative case, — and third 
person. (Decline it.) Is extracted is a regular verb 
passive, — in the indicative mood, — in the passed tense, 
(as expressive of completed and perfected action: see H3=* 
page 103) and, agrees with - its nominative, — "opinion" 
accordingly to Rule I., Syntax of Verbs, which says, &c. 
(Repeat the Rule.) From is a preposition. A is the 
indefinite article. Respectably is an adverb of quality. 



SYNTAX. 229 

Conducted is a regular verb passive, — in the indicative 
mood, — i n the 'present tense, (if intended, in its opera- 
tion, to represent the action described, under continued 
and progressive duration; agreeably to the following 
understood version : — "from a journal which is respect- 
ably conducted." See page 103.) and agrees with its 
latent nominative, — journal; — understood to follow 
the relative ivhich : through the medium of which, it is, 
in idea, created anew. (See page 153.) Respectably is 
an adverb of manner or quality. Journal is a noun or 
substantive common, — of the singular number, — neuter 
gender, — objective case, — and third person, [Decline 
it) governed by the preposition "from ;" agreeably to 
Rule I., Syntax of Prepositions. 



" He speaks the language of nature." 

He is a personal pronoun, — of the singular number, 
- — of the masculine gender, — the nominative case, 
{Decline it) and, of the third person, agreeing with 
its antecedent (say, William) understood: agreeably 
to Rule I., Syntax of Pronouns. Speaks is an irregular 
verb neuter* — in the indicative mood, — in the present 



* That certain verbs possess, not only peculiar, but varied in- 
fluence and effect, may be thus perceived : — Drink, which is, 
occasionally, an active verb, will not, like other active verbs, 
permit the objective case of a personal pronoun to follow it ; so as 
to form acceptable and unobjectionable language ; as, we cannot 
properly say, " I drink Kim?\ " He drank her :" although, it will 
admit the neuter and substantive pronoun after it ; for we can cor- 
rectly say, "I drink i£;" or, "He drank them" The verb to act, 
which is sometimes neuter, as well as active, is similarly affecte d 
20 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAK, 

tense, (Repeat the definition of the tense) and agrees 
with its nominative he, agreeably to Rule I. of Syntax 
of Verbs. The is the definite article. Language is 
a noun or substantive common ; of the singular num- 
ber, — of the neuter gender, — in the objective case, — 
third person, and governed by the preposition in (un- 
derstood) : thus, " He speaks in the language," &c. Of 
is a preposition. Nature is a noun or substantive com- 
mon, — of the singular number, — of the neuter gender, 

— in the objective case, — third person, (Decline it) and 
governed by the preposition of 

In the following extract from Mr. Pope, we perceive its active 
position : — 

"Honor and shame, from no condition rise: 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies." 

In this instance, act is, ideally, substituted for 'perform; which 
is invariably active. In the next, it is neuter ; because it repre- 
sents the action described, as confined to the agent, (who is sup- 
posed to execute it) without passing to an object: thus, " He has 
acted by your instructions." 

Under the former construction and arrangement, act may be- 
come passive; as, " Your part is acted; or, being acted: 11 that is ? 

— is performed; or, u is being performed: 11 thereby affording a 
proof of its active construction, in the sense above noticed. Un- 
der the latter, it cannot become passive ; as the action rests solely 
within the agent of the operation : for we cannot, in this case, — 
conformably to a proper and consistent use of this word, say, 
" He has been acted or performed 11 See Syntax of Verbs, Rule IL 
Notes 1, 2, 3, and 6 : and, also, Note 8, where the verb to think 
is shown to be improperly employed in an active sense; and 
where it is also substituted, in imagination, for the active verb 
believe, suppose, consider, or some verb of equivalent signification 
and effect. 



ORTHOGRAPHICAL EXERCISES* 



" Trean up a child in the way he should goe ; and 
when he is ould, he will not depart from it." 

u A false ballance is abbomination to the Lord ; but a 
just wait is his delight." 

** Where no councel is, the people fall; but in the mul- 
titude of councelors there is safty." 

"What shall it proffit a man, if he shall gain the 
hole world and loose his own soul?" 

"In that day he will seperate the whate from the 
chaff" 

" The wise in hart will receive comandments ; but a 
pr eating fool shall fall." 

44 He that opresseth the poor, reproacheth his Maker ; 
but, he that honoreth him, hath mercy on the poor." 

" The tounge of the wise useth knowlege aright ; but, 
the mouths of fools poureth out foollishness." 

44 Beter is a dry morsil, and quiteness therewith, than 
a house full of sacrifices with stryfe." 

* Where a Dictionary fails to afford the means of correcting 
the erroneous spelling, the student is referred to the rules and 
.directions given throughout the work. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" A word fittly spoken is like appels of gold in pictures 
of silver." 

" Hue Johnson set up a hew and cry, because the 
hugh of his cloake was not imparted by the wood hued 
for that purpose." 

" William eat his dinner composed of mutten, veneson, 
turneps, and spinage ; after which he had a desert of 
rasberries, pairs, mellons, currans, and fillberts." 

" I am the rose of Sharon and the lilley of the valeys." 

"A strait line is the shortest distance between too 
points." 

" His bretheren and his wive's sister acompanied him." 

" A surprizing historey and a sincere repentence." 

" He is adicted to visious pursuits, and therfore blame- 
able." 

" Nature is content with a litle, but fancy is bound- 
les." 

44 Too much familliarity breeds discontint." 

" The world agrees in concidering pawnbroakers the 
most ignoble, and least concientious of our species" 



ETYMOLOGICAL EXERCISES, 



What part of speech is the word under consideration ? 

1. A Substantive. What sort? Common or proper? 
Of what Number, Gender, Case, and Person ? Why ? 
Decline it. 

2. An Article. What sort? Definite or Indefinite? 
Why? 

3. An Adjective. In what state ? Positive, Compar- 
ative, or Superlative? Why? 

To what noun does it belong ? Compare it. 

4. A Pronoun. What sort ? If a personal pronoun, 
of what Number, Gender, Case, and Person ? Decline 
it If a relative or adjective pronoun, — why ? 

5. A Verb. What sort ? Active, Passive, or Neuter ? 
In what Mood and Tense? In what Voice? Conju- 
gate it. 

6. An Adverb. What sort? Why is it an Adverb? 

7. A Preposition. Why ? 

8. A Conjunction. Why? 

9. An Interjection? Why? 

Write the following nouns in the nominative case 
20* 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

plural : book, chart, dance, key, ox, brother, child, fly, 
party, tory, fairy, toy, church, branch, pretext, fish, beau- 
ty, thief, wife, man, loaf, self, calf, staff, wolf, half. 

Write the same in the possessive case, singular and 
plural. 

Write the positive and superlative states of better, 
worse, less, older, more, brighter, genteeler; and the 
comparative and superlative states of handsome, pretty, 
fine, powerful, active. 

Write the possessive and objective cases, singular and 
plural, of the personal pronouns I, thou, he, she, it, we, 
ye or you, they ; of the relative who ; and, of the words 
other, and another. 

Conjugate in the passive voice, and in the passed and 
perfect tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, and interrog- 
ative moods, the verbs to grind, to eat, to fear, to beseech, 
to breed, to drive, to make, to forsake, to chide, to bite. 

Conjugate the same in the present tense of the indica- 
tive and potential moods, in the active and passive voices. 

Write the following verbs in the perfect tense of the 
infinitive mood: crow, bleed, break, bend, give, choose, 
build, leap, grieve, think. 

Write the same in the pluperfect, the first, and second 
future tenses of the indicative and interrogative moods, 
in the active and passive voices; and, point out those 
which will not permit the conjugation required. 

Conjugate in the imperative mood, active and passive 
voices, the verbs to find, to claim, to tear, to form, to 
move, to bind. 



EXERCISES. 235 

Write the active and passive participles of the same, 
and conjugate them in the 'participial form throughout 
the moods and tenses. 

Write every noun, article, adjective, pronoun, verb or 
participle, preposition, conjunction, and interjection, in 
the first chapter of Saint John's Gospel; and describe 
what sort each is, 



CATECHETICAL PARSING INDEX, 

Calculated to assist the Learner in discovering the 
peculiarities of the different Parts of Speech in 
Etymology and Syntax. 

SUBSTANTIVE. 

In what case; and why? 
If in the nominative, — to what verb ? 
If in the objective, — by what governed? 
If in the possessive, — by what qualified ? 
If in apposition, — why ? 

ARTICLE. 

If the definite or indefinite, — why? 

ADJECTIVE. 

To what noun does it refer? 

Why placed before or after its noun? 

Does it admit of comparison ? 

If not, — why? 

Why omitted or repeated? 



EXERCISES, 237 

PRONOUN. 

What is its antecedent? 

Why (if a personal pronoun) of the masculine, fem- 
inine, or neuter gender? 

Of what number ; and why ? 

Of what person ; and why ? 

Of what case ; and why ? 

VERB. 

Regular or irregular? 

What is its nominative case? 

What does it govern? 

In what mood; and why? 

What correspondence has it to another verb, as to 
time? 

Why do active participles govern the objective case ? 
Why is the verb repeated or omitted ? 

ADVERBS. 

What is its general position? 

Why is the double negative employed ? 

Why rejected; and, what is the effect? 

PREPOSITION. 

What case does it govern? 
Why repeated or omitted ? 
What does it govern? 



238 EXERCISES. 

CONJUNCTION. 

What moods, tenses, cases, or structures of senten- 
ces does it connect? 

Why does it connect them ? 

What mood does it require? 

When and why omitted or repeated? 

INTERJECTION. 

Why does it precede the objective case? 
Why repeated or omitted? 



BRANCH IV, 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the punctuation or pointing of sen- 
tences; and, of their proper pronunciation, poetical ar- 
rangement, and harmony. 



When the numerous and ably executed works which have been 
offered to the pnblick on this subject are considered, to attempt a 
variation in theory, when perhaps no further practical utility 
could be afforded, would certainly be a superfluous undertaking. 
We shall, therefore, treat of this part of grammar in the most con- 
cise form; while, at the same time^ we shall take leave to refer 
the reader, for such information as we shall not present, to the 
"Rhetorical Grammar" of Mr. Walker; to the "Prosody" of Dr. 
Carey; and, to the "Lectures" of Dr. Blair. 



Prosody is divided into two parts : — one shows the 
just pronunciation of words; including accent, emphasis, 
quantity, pause, and the modulation of the voice. The 
other shows the laws of versification; or, the due ar- 
rangement of a certain number of syllables in poetry. 

Dr. Lowth considers punctuation to be, "The art of 
marking, in writing, the several pauses or rests, between 
sentences and the parts of sentences, accordingly to their 
proper quantity or proportion : as they are expressed in 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a just and accurate pronunciation." The marks or points 
used in writing, are generally those following : — 

The Comma, marked thus, , 

The Semicolon, " " ; 

The Colon, " " : 
The Period, 

And those which are attended with an alteration of 
the voice: 

The Interrogation, marked thus, ? 
The Exclamation, " " ! 

The Parenthesis, " ( ) 

The Dash, " " — 

The comma is the shortest pause used in writing ; the 
semicolon, double that of the comma ; the colon, double 
that of the semicolon ; and, the period, double that of 
the colon. The interrogation and exclamation marks 
are said to be indefinite, as to their quantity of time, and 
to mark a certain elevation of voice, with a pause greater 
than that of a comma. 

Almost all persons who have written on this subject 
have presumed to furnish rules for the proper employ- 
ment of those points ; yet, while we are perfectly satis- 
fied to commend the exertions of every individual, we 
cannot avoid observing, that rules on this subject, how 
judiciously soever contrived, are inefficient to establish a 
decisive and unalterable use of them. Indeed, if all men 
thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling 
a perfect adjustment of these points may be accom- 
plished: but, as the improbability, and, we may add, 
impossibility of such phenomena as these are too evident 



PROSODY. 241 



to admit of contention ; so must ail rules formed for such 
a purpose, be not only defective, but, on several occa 
sions, inconsistent. 



The use of the Comma. 

A simple sentence, that is, a sentence having but one 
subject or nominative, and one finite verb, admits of no 
pause. Thus, in the following sentence: " The passion 
for praise produces excellent effects in ivomen of sense :" 
" The passion for praise" is the subject, or nominative 
case, to the verb "produces;" and, " excellent effects in 
women of sense" is the object, or objective case, with its 
concomitant circumstances or adjuncts of specification ; 
as Doctor Lowth properly terms them : and, " this 
sentence," says the learned Bishop, " admits of no pause 
between any of its parts:" but, when a new' verb is 
added to the sentence, as in the following : — " The 
passion for praise, which is so very vehement in the fair 
sex, produces excellent effects in women of sense :" — 
here, a new verb is introduced, accompanied with ad- 
juncts of its own; and the subject is repeated by the 
relative pronoun which : hence, it now becomes a com- 
pounded sentence, made up of two simple sentences, one 
of which is inserted in the middle of the other; and 
must, therefore, be distinguished into its component 
parts by a point, placed on each side of the additional 
sentence. 

In every sentence, therefore, as many subjects, or, as 
many finite verbs, as there are, — expressed or implied, 
so many distinctions there may be : as, " My hopes, 
fears, joys, pains, all centre in you." The case is the 
same, when several adjuncts affect the subject of the 
21 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verbs : as, " A good, wise, and learned man, is an 
ornament to the commonwealth :" or, when several ad- 
verbs, or adverbial circumstances, affect the verb; as, 
" He behaved prudently, modestly, and virtuously" 
Because, as many of such adjuncts as there are, so 
many several members does the. sentence contain : and 
these are to be distinguished from each other, as well as 
so many several subjects, or finite verbs. The reason 
of this is, that as many subjects, finite verbs, or adjuncts, 
as there are in a sentence, so many distinct sentences are 
actually implied, as the first example represents, — " My 
hopes all centre in you, my fears all centre in you," &c. 
The same may be observed of the second example, — 
" A good man is an ornament to the commonwealth, a 
wise man is an ornament to the commonwealth," &c. 
The third is to be considered in a similar manner, and 
each implied sentence must be distinguished by a 
comma. 

The exception to this rule is, when these subjects or 
adjuncts are united by a conjunction ; as, " The imagi- 
nation and the judgment do not always agree ; and, a 
man never becomes learned without studying constantly 
and methodically." In these cases, the comma between 
the subjects and the adjuncts is omitted. 

Further, — When two or more subjects, nouns, or 
adjuncts, are to be represented as equally and individu- 
ally operating, (not collectively) they should be sepa- 
rated by commas ; as, " The General, Captain, and 
Ensigns, applauded his conduct." Also, when two or 
more nouns are connected by a disjunctive conjunction, 
they ought to be divided by commas ; as, " Envy, or 
ambition, was his great failing." " Wealth, power, or 
government, was his aim." But, when two or more 



PROSODY. 243 

nouns are put as explanatives, or in apposition to each 
other, they are not separated by commas; as, "Mood 
or mode is a certain form of the verb: 11 "Piety or 
holiness is commendable" 

Relative pronouns, as connective particles, take com- 
mas before them; as, "He preaches practically, who 
lives virtuously" 

Further remarks on this subject appear unnecessary; 
as, in most cases, the sense alone must be the guide. 
We shall therefore proceed to the use of the semicolon : 
first observing, as a general rule, for the application of 
this point, that it commonly divides those parts of a sen- 
tence, which, though closely connected, in sense, re- 
quire a comma between them; as in this last written 
sentence. 



The use of the Semicolon. 

When a sentence is divided into two or more mem- 
bers, which members are again divided into members 
more simple, the former are to be parted by a semico- 
lon ; as, " This passion for admiration, when it works 
accordingly to reason, improves the beautiful part of our 
species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is 
more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity 
or folly." 

With respect to the use of the semicolon, the rule will 
hold as a general one, that it will find a suitable place in 
those parts of a sentence which are not so nearly con- 
nected as those which are separated by a comma ; nor 
yet so detached in sense or construction as those which 
require a colon. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The use of the Colon. 

When a sentence can be divided into two parts, each 
of which is again divisible by semicolons, the former is 
to be separated by a colon : — " As we cannot discern the 
shadow moving along the dial-plate, so the advances we 
make in knowledge are only perceived by the distance 
accomplished" Here, the two members, being both 
simple, are separated by a comma only. 

" As we perceive that the shadow has moved, though 
we did not perceive it moving ; so our advances in learn- 
ing, as they consist of such minute steps, are only per- 
ceivable by the distance accomplished." 

Here, the sentence being divided into two equal parts, 
and those compounded, since they include others, we 
separate the former by a semicolon, and the latter by 
commas. 

Again — "As we perceive the shadow has moved 
along the dial, though we did not perceive it moving ; 
and, it appears the grass has grown, though no person 
ever saw it grow: so the advances we make in know- 
ledge, as they consist of such minute steps, are only 
perceivable by the distance accomplished" 

Here, the advancement in knowledge is compared to 
the motion of a shadow, and the growth of grass : which 
comparison divides the sentence into two principal parts : 
but, since what is said of the movement of the shadow, 
and the growth of grass, likewise contains two simple 
members, and are to be separated by a semicolon ; conse- 
quently, a higher pointing is required, to separate them 



PROSODY. 245 

from the other part of the sentence, to which they are 
opposed : and this is a colon. 

When a member of a sentence forms complete sense, 
and when it does not excite expectation of what follows, 
though it contains but a single member, it may be 
marked with a colon : for example, — " The discourse 
consisted of two parts : in the first was shown the neces- 
sity of fighting ; in the seconds the advantages that 
would arise from it" The Augustan age was so emi- 
nent for good poets, that they served as models to all 
others : yet it did not produce any good tragick poets. 

When a sentence is so far perfectly finished, as not to 
be connected in construction to the following sentence, 
it is marked with a period. 



Of the Interrogation, Exclamation, and 
Parenthesis. 

The Note of Interrogation is used to show that a 
question is asked : as, " What day of the month is this ?" 
It likewise distinguishes a question from a sentence in 
the imperative mood ; as, " Do you return ?" Interro- 
gative sentences require an elevaticm of the voice, ex- 
cept the questions be asked by the pronouns who, which, 
what; or, by the adverbs how, when, where, &c. : for 
in these cases, we must give a moderate cadence to the 
voice, and let the pause be governed by the sense of the 
subject. 

An Exclamation denotes an emotion of the mind; 
and requires an elevation of the voice, with a pause 
21* 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

equivalent either to a comma, colon, semicolon, or pe- 
riod ; as the sense demands : as, 

" These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good ! 
Almighty ! Thine this universal frame, 
Thus wondrous fair ! Thyself, how wondrous, then !" 



Parenthesis. 

A Parenthesis is a sentence inserted in the body of 
another sentence, to illustrate its meaning ; but, is neither 
necessary to the sense, nor at all affects the construction. 
It marks a moderate depression of the voice, with a 
pause greater than a comma: as, " When they were 
both turned of forty, (an age in which, accordingly to 
Mr. Cowley, there is no dallying with life) they deter- 
mined to retire, and pass the remainder of their days 
in the country." Spectator, No. 123. 



Of the Dash. 

The Dash is, with much propriety, introduced where 
the usual course of the sentence is interrupted, by an 
unexpected variation of the sense: thus, Doctor Young: 

" With joy, — with greif, that healing hand I see ; 
Ah ! too conspicuous ! It is fixed on high. 
On high, — what means my frenzy 1 — I blaspheme ; 
Alas ! how low ! — how far beneath the skies ! 
The skies it form'd — and now it bleeds for me ; — 
But bleeds the balm I want, — yet still it bleeds. 
Draw the dire steel, — Ah no ! the dreadful blessing 
What heart or can sustain or dares forego y 

Night Thoughts. 

We must here observe, that a very affected and inju- 



PROSODY. 247 

dicious use of the dash has, of late years, been adopted 
by many of our writers ; as if to give a mysterious and 
uncommon appearance to their productions. Such un- 
meaning affectation should be avoided, as not only 
pedantick, but even finical. 

Of Accent. 

A just and accurate definition of accent may be said 
to consist in applying an unusual stress of the voice to 
any particular letter, syllable, or word in a sentence; 
so as to make it more audible in pronunciation than the 
others: as in the expression, " Temperance supports 
health" the stress of the voice is principally laid on the 
word temperance ; on the first syllable tern ; and, on the 
letter m. 

Of Emphasis. 

By Emphasis, is signified, a more forcible sound of 
the voice laid on some particular word or words in a 
sentence ; thus showing how the idea conveyed by this 
word or these words is enforced on the mind of the 
hearer. On some occasions, the emphatical words are 
denoted by more stress and vehemence than the rest of 
the sentence; as, "Thou seest, O! Lord, — that I do 
love thee." 

A variation of the emphasis may not only leave the 
sense doubtful, but may alter the signification of the 
words. For example : — "Do you visit the city this 
week?' 1 If, in this sentence, the emphasis be placed 
on you, as, "Do you visit?" the answer may be, "No, 
we send a messenger" If thus : " Do you visit the 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

city this week?' 7 " No, we remain in the country." 
11 Do you visit the city this weekV 1 " No, not til] next 

week. 11 



Of Quantity. 

The Quantity of a word or syllable is that length of 
time which is occupied in its pronunciation. 



Of Pauses. 

The word Pause denotes a rest or exclusion from ac- 
tion ; and, when applied to writing or discourse, it means 
that suspension of the voice, necessary in reading or 
common conversation ; so as to enable the speaker to 
renew his breath, that he may articulate his words 
with visror and distinction. 



Of the Modulation of Voice. 

Tones, or the Modulation of the Voice, are the notes, 
keys, or variations of sound, which we employ in ex- 
pressing our sentiments in an audible manner. 



Of the various Marks used in Modern Writ- 
ing ; and of the disposal of Capitals. 

An Index, or Hand H3r% points to some passage or 
note that requires more than ordinary attention. 

A Quotation is marked by two inverted commas, at 



PROSODY. 249 

the commencement ; and two direct ones, at the termi- 
nation ; as, " The path of duty is the way of safety." 

Crotchets or Brackets are formed thus, [ ], and 
serve to inclose a word or sentence which is to be ex- 
plained elsewhere. They are sometimes explanations 
in their selves; and, on other occasions, used to rectify 
any misrepresentation to which our language would be 
otherwise subjected. This mark is frequently used in 
the writings of some of our ancient authors: — Josephus, 
Tillotson, &c. 

) is employed in poetry, at the terminations 
S of three lines which have the same rhyme, 
as in the following triplet : — 

" If to my utmost power, with sword and shield, } 
I dar'd the death, unknowing how to yield ; > 
And falling in my rank, still kept the field." J 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words 
to one general term ; and thus serve to prevent repeti- 
tions in writing or printing. 

An Asterisk, or Star *, refers to a note in the margin, 
or at the bottom of a page. More than one, generally 
denote the omission of some letters in a word, or some 
coarse or obscene expression, or a defect in the manu- 
script or copy. 

An Ellipsis, marked thus — , is employed when some 
letters in a word, or some words in a sentence, are omit- 
ted: as, "k— g" for "king:" "v-ll-n," for " villain" 

A Caret, marked thus /\, is used to denote the ab- 
sence of some word or words, letter or letters, that hap- 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pen to be omitted in the manuscript ; and which must be 

loves 

inserted over the line : as, " William learning." 

A 

A Hyphen, marked thus - connects words which are 
sometimes compounded ; as, " Would-be- wit, ink-stand, 
hand-full. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate a 
word : as, y tis for it is ; the? for though; e'en for even ; 
formed for formed; dry for every. This mark is al- 
ways employed in denoting the possessive case of nouns, 
— as, "John's book; William's horse." 

An Obelisk, marked thus f, and Parallels, thus ||, 
are used as references : as are also the letters of the al- 
phabet; and the figures employed in numerical calcu- 
lation. 

A Diseresis, marked thus ■• is placed over one of 
two vowels, which would otherwise form a diphthong ; 
and parts them, so as to cause each to belong to a dif- 
ferent syllable ; as, Meander, Creator. 

A Section, marked thus §, is used to divide a portion 
or chapter into parts ; and, a Paragraph °H, to denote the 
commencement of a new or different subject from a 
preceding one. 

The Accents are two — the Grave and the Acute: 
the former is thus marked ' as in the word Savior; 
the latter thus v as in Parry. 

In general, the long syllable is thus marked - as in 
Prose : the short thus, - as in snort. 

A single stroke is placed (in manuscript) under a 
word or words which are to be printed in italicks ; two 



PROSODY. 251 

strokes for small capitals, and three for LARGE 
CAPITALS. 

A Capital letter should be placed at the commence- 
ment of the following words: — The first word of every 
book, chapter, letter, paragraph, and first word of a 
quotation, which forms a sentence, or perfect phrase ; 
as, " Let us never lose sight of that useful maxim, 
* Charity should begin at home,' and we shall be rather 
sparing of our censure towards others." This last sen- 
tence affords a specimen of a quotation within a quota- 
tion. The first word after a period or full stop; and 
generally after the marks of interrogation and exclama- 
tion. The various names given to the Almighty; as, 
God, Jehovah, the Lord, the Supreme Being, &c. 
Every proper name ; and all adjectives derived from the 
names of places, &c. ; as, " French fashion ; 55 " Ameri- 
can Independence; 55 "English Grammar. 55 The first 
word of every line in poetry. The personal pronoun i, 
the interjection O ! and Oh ! All w^ords of marked im- 
portance; as, the Revolution, the Carnival, the Refor- 
mation; and, the name of every science. 



JS" in order to comply with the numerous and pressing de- 
mands of the publick, for the early production of this work, we 
find, that in our haste, we have been betrayed into a few typo- 
graphical errors. The cause will, we humbly hope, be found, at 
least, an admissible apology for the effect, S. & EL 

ERRATA. 

Page 39, line 24, — for '' publicly," read publickly. 

53 ? 19 5 — for " to make," read to mark. 

■ 65, 13, — for " inactice," read inactive. 

*? 65, 18,— -for " accordingly," read accordingly, 

, us, - 15, — " near* is improperly introduced. 

* 123, — 10,— for " compound," read compounded, 

„ i53 } 20, — for " nominative," read nominative, 

« 164, 5,— for M and, not," read but, not. 

^^. i82 ? — - 15, — for ft different," read difficult. 



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